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 Talk Talk - Communication terms
Category: General technical and industrial
Date & country: 28/05/2010, UK
Words: 18630


Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguérite
French general and politician. A member of the National Convention in the French Revolution, he organized the armies of the republic. He was war minister 1800–01 and minister of the interior in 1815 under Napoleon. His work on fortification, De la Défense de places fortes (1810), became a military textbook. Minister of ...

Carnegie, Andrew
Scottish-born US industrialist and philanthropist, who used his personal fortune from the creation of his Pittsburgh iron and steel industries to fund educational, cultural, and peace institutions, many of which bear his name. After his death, the Carnegie trusts continued his philanthropic activities. Carnegie Hall in New York, which opened in...

Carmelite order
Mendicant order of friars in the Roman Catholic Church. The order was founded on Mount Carmel in Palestine by Berthold, a crusader from Calabria, about 1155, and spread to Europe in the 13th century. The Carmelites have devoted themselves largely to missionary work and mystical theology. They are known as White Friars because of the white overmantl...

Carmarthenshire
Unitary authority in south Wales; a former county, it was part of Dyfed between 1975 and 1996. Area 2,390 sq km/923 sq mi Towns Carmarthen (administrative headquarters), Llanelli Physical rivers Tywi, Taf, Teifi; Black Mountain range in the east, southern spur of the Cambrian Mountains in...

Carlyle, Thomas
Scottish essayist and social historian. His works include the partly autobiographical Sartor Resartus/The Tailor Retailored (1833–34), reflecting his loss of Christian belief; The French Revolution (1837); and the long essay `Chartism` ...

Carlisle
(UK) City and administrative headquarters of Cumbria, northwest England, on the River Eden at the western end of Hadrian's Wall, 14 km/9 mi south of the Scottish border; population (2001) 73,800. It is a leading railway and service centre. Industries include engineering and brewing...

Carlow
(county) Second-smallest county in the Republic of Ireland, in the province of Leinster; county town Carlow; area 900 sq km/347 sq mi; population (2002) 46,000. The land is mostly flat except for the Blackstairs mountains in the south (rising to 796 m/2,612 ft in Mount ...

Carl XVI Gustavus
King of Sweden from 1973. He succeeded his grandfather Gustavus VI, his father having been killed in an air crash in 1947. Under the new Swedish constitution, which became effective on his grandfather's death, the monarchy was stripped of all power at his accession

Carinthia
Federal state of alpine southeast Austria, bordering Italy and Slovenia in the south; area 9,533 sq km/3,681 sq mi; population (2001 est) 561,100. Its capital is Klagenfurt

Carib
Member of a group of American Indian people of the north coast of South America and the islands of the southern West Indies in the Caribbean. Those who moved north to take the islands from the Arawak Indians were alleged by the conquering Spaniards to be fierce cannibals. In 1796, the English in the West Indies deported most of them to Roatan Islan...

Carew, Thomas
English poet. Often associated with the `Cavalier poets`, he was a courtier and gentleman of the privy chamber to Charles I, for whom he wrote the spectacular masque Coelum Britannicum (1634). Poems (1640) revealed his ability to weave metaphysical wit, eroticism, and a jewelled lyricism in his work. ...

cardinal
(religion) In the Roman Catholic Church, the highest rank next to the pope. Cardinals act as an advisory body to the pope and elect him. Their red hat is the badge of office. The number of cardinals has varied; there were 141 in 2001. Originally a cardinal was any priest in charge of a maj...

Carcassonne
Click images to enlargeCity in southwest France, administrative centre of Aude département, 100 km/62 mi southeast of Toulouse on the Canal du Midi and the River Aude, which divides it into the ancient and modern town; population (1999) 43,900. The medieval fortification, restored by Violle...

Caracas
Chief city and capital of Venezuela, situated in the Central Highlands of the Andes Mountains 900 m/2,950 ft above sea level, 13 km/8 mi south of its port La Guaira on the Caribbean coast; population (2000 est) 1,975,800; Federal District, including Vargas state (2000 est) 2,284,900. Main industries include oil refining, textiles, c...

Capuchin
Member of the Franciscan order of monks in the Roman Catholic Church, instituted by the Italian monk Matteo di Bassi (died 1552), who wished to return to the literal observance of the rule of St Francis. The Capuchin rule was drawn up in 1529 and the order recognized by the pope in 1619. The name was derived from the French term for the brown habit...

Capone, Al(phonse)
US gangster. During the Prohibition period, he built a formidable criminal organization in Chicago. He was brutal in his pursuit of dominance, killing seven members of a rival gang in the St Valentine's Day Massacre of 1929. He was imprisoned from 1931 to 1939 for income-tax evasion, the only charge that could be sustained against him

capital
(architecture) In architecture, a stone placed on the top of a column, pier, or pilaster, and usually wider on the upper surface than the diameter of the supporting shaft. It comes directly below the entablature (architrave, frieze, and cornice) and/or the lintel (top of a door or window f...

Cape Cod
Hook-shaped peninsula in southeastern Massachusetts, USA, separated from the rest of the state by the Cape Cod Canal; length 100 km/62 mi; width 1.6–32 km/1–20 mi. Its beaches and woods make it a popular tourist area. The islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket are just south of the cape. Basque and Norse fisher...

Cape Canaveral
Rocket launch site used by NASA, a promontory on the Atlantic coast of Florida, 367 km/228 mi north of Miami. The Kennedy Space Center is nearby. In the 50 years since the first rocket launch from Cape Canaveral, in July 1950, over 3,000 missiles and rockets were launched from the site. These included lift-offs to the Moon during the
canton
In France, an administrative district, a subdivision of the arrondissement; in Switzerland, one of the 23 subdivisions forming the Confederation

canyon
Deep, narrow valley or gorge running through mountains. Canyons are formed by stream down-cutting, usually in arid areas, where the rate of down-cutting is greater than the rate of weathering, and where the stream or river receives water from outside the area. There are many canyons in the we...

canon
(religious writings) In theology, the collection of writings that is accepted as authoritative in a given religion, such as the Tripitaka in Theravada Buddhism. In the Christian church, it comprises the books of the Bible. The canon of the Old Testament was drawn up at the assembly of rabbis h...

canoeing
Sport of propelling a lightweight, shallow boat, pointed at both ends, by paddles. Present-day canoes are made from fibreglass, but original boats were of wooden construction covered in bark or skin. Canoeing was popularized as a sport in the 19th century, although canoes have been in use for tho...

Cano, Juan Sebastian del
Spanish voyager. It is claimed that he was the first sea captain to sail around the world. He sailed with Ferdinand Magellan in 1519 and, after the latter's death in the Philippines, brought the Victoria safely home to Spain

Canberra
Capital of Australia and seat of the federal government, situated in the Australian Capital Territory in southeast Australia; population (2001 est) 311,500. Canberra lies on a plain adjoining the Australian Alps and is enclosed within the state of New South Wales; it is 289 km/180 mi southwest of Sydney and 655 km/407 mi northeast o...

Canaletto, Antonio
Italian painter. He painted highly detailed views (vedute) of Venice (his native city), and of London and the River Thames (1746–56). Typical of his Venetian works is Venice: Regatta on the Grand Canal (c. 1735; National Gallery, London). Much of his work is detailed and precise,...

canal
Click images to enlargeArtificial waterway constructed for drainage, irrigation, or navigation. Irrigation canals carry water for irrigation from rivers, reservoirs, or wells, and are designed to maintain an even flow of water over the whole length. Navigation and ship canals are constructed at one level between locks, an...

Canaan
Ancient region between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, called in the Bible the `Promised Land` of the Israelites. It was occupied as early as the 3rd millennium BC by the Canaanites, a Semitic-speaking people who were known to the Greeks of the 1st millennium BC as Phoenicians. The capital was Ebla (now Tell Mardikh, Syria). The C...

Camelot
In medieval romance, legendary seat of King Arthur. A possible site is the Iron Age hill fort of South Cadbury Castle in Somerset, England, where excavations from 1967 have revealed remains dating from 3000 BC to AD 1100, including those of a large settlement dating from the 6th century, the time ascribed to Arthur

Cambyses
King of Persia (529–522 BC). Succeeding his father Cyrus, he assassinated his brother Smerdis and conquered Egypt in 525 BC. There he outraged many of the local religious customs and was said to have become insane. He died in Syria

Cambridge
(UK) Click images to enlargeCity and administrative headquarters of Cambridgeshire, eastern England, on the River Cam, 80 km/50 mi north of London; population (2001) 117,700. It is the seat of Cambridge University (founded in the 13th century...

Camargue
Area of the Rhône delta enclosed by the two principal arms of the river, south of Arles, France; area about 780 sq km/300 sq mi. One-third of the area is lake or marshland and dykes have been constructed to prevent widespread flooding. Black bulls and white horses are bred, and rice and vines are grown. A nature reserve, known for ...

Calvin, John
French-born Swiss Protestant church reformer and theologian. He was a leader of the Reformation in Geneva and set up a strict religious community there. His theological system is known as Calvinism, and his church government as Presbyterianism. Calvin wrote (in Latin) Institutes of the C...

Callot, Jacques
French engraver and painter. He was influenced by Mannerism. His series of etchings Great Miseries of War (1633), prompted by his own experience of the Thirty Years' War, are arrestingly composed and full of horrific detail. He is regarded as one of the greatest etchers, and his enormous output includes over 1,400 prints and ...

calligraphy
Art of handwriting, regarded in China and Japan as the greatest of the visual arts, and playing a large part in Islamic art because the depiction of the human and animal form is forbidden. Chinese calligraphy The first Chinese writing appeared in about 1300 BC. Unlike the alphabets and words of Western writing, Chinese and Japanese writing contains...

Callaghan,
(Leonard) British Labour politician, prime minister and party leader 1976–79. He became prime minister in April 1976 after the unexpected retirement of Harold Wilson and he headed a minority government, which stayed in power from...

Callao
Chief commercial port of Peru, situated 12 km/7 mi northwest of Lima on Callas Bay; sheltered by the island of San Lorenzo; population (2005) urban agglomeration 810,600 (part of metropolitan Lima). The port handles 75% of Peru's imports and 25% of its exports. Exports include petroleum, minerals (copper, iron, silver, zinc,...

Caledonian Canal
Waterway in northwest Scotland, 98 km/61 mi long, linking the Atlantic and the North Sea. Situated between the Moray Firth and Loch Linnhe, the canal was constructed as a transport route to save the long sail around Scotland. It is one of Scotland's largest marina facilities. Of its total len...

caliph
Title of civic and religious heads of the world of Islam. The first caliph was Abu Bakr. Nominally elective, the office became hereditary, held by the Umayyad dynasty 661–750 and then by the Abbasid dynasty. After the death of the last Abbasid (1258), the title was claimed by a number of Muslim chieftains in Egypt, Turkey, and India. The most ...

Cairo
(city) Click images to enlargeCapital of Egypt, and the largest city in Africa and in the Middle East, situated on the east bank of the River Nile 13 km/8 mi above the apex of the delta and 160 km/100 mi from the Mediterrane...

Cairngorm Mountains
Click images to enlargeGranite mountain group in Scotland, northern part of the Grampian Mountains, between the River Dee and the upper Spey. The central range includes four out of five of Britain's highest mountains: Ben Macdhui (1,309 m/4,296 ft), Braeriach (1,296 m/4,251 ft), Cairn Toul (1,291 m/4,2...

Cain
In the Old Testament, the first-born son of Adam and Eve. Motivated by jealousy, he murdered his brother Abel because the latter's sacrifice was more acceptable to God than his own

Cagliari
(town) Capital and port of Sardinia, Italy, on the south coast of the island on the Gulf of Cagliari; population (1992) 180,300. Industries include oil-refining and the manufacture of petrochemicals

Caesarean section
Surgical operation to deliver a baby by way of an incision in the mother's abdominal and uterine walls. It may be recommended for almost any obstetric complication implying a threat to mother or baby. Caesarean section was named after the Roman emperor Julius Caesar, who was said to have been born this way. In medieval Europe, it was performed ...

Caernarfon
Administrative centre of Gwynedd, north Wales, situated on the southwest shore of the Menai Strait; population (2001) 9,700. Formerly the Roman station of Segontium, it is now a market town, port, and tourist centre. Industries include the manufacture of plastics and metal-working. 88% of the population of Caernarfon is Welsh-speaki...

Cadwalader
Semi-mythical British king, the son of Cadwallon, king of Gwynedd, North Wales, described by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his book Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain)

Caen
Administrative centre of Calvados département and of the Basse-Normandie region, France, on the River Orne, 200 km/124 mi from Paris; population (1999) 114,000, conurbation 199,400. It is a busy port, connected by 11 km/7 mi of canal to the English Channel. The...

Cabal, the
Group of politicians, the English king Charles II's counsellors 1667–73, whose initials made up the word by coincidence – Clifford (Thomas Clifford 1630–1673), Ashley (Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury), Buckingham (George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham), Arlington (Henry Bennett, 1st Earl of Arlington 1618–16...

cauliflower
Variety of cabbage, with a large edible head of fleshy, cream-coloured flowers which do not fully mature. It is similar to broccoli but less hardy. (Brassica oleracea botrytis, family Cruciferae.)

Campbell, Colin
British field marshal. He commanded the Highland Brigade at Balaclava in the Crimean War and, as commander-in-chief during the Indian Mutiny, raised the siege of Lucknow and captured Cawnpore. KCB (1849), Baron (1858)

calypso
West Indian satirical ballad with a syncopated beat and repeating melody. Calypso is a traditional song form of Trinidad, a feature of its annual carnival, with roots in West African praise-singing. It was first made popular in the USA by Harry Belafonte (1927– ) in 1956. Mighty Sparrow (1935– ) is Trinidad's best-kn...

Campbell, Donald Malcolm
British car and speedboat enthusiast, son of Malcolm Campbell, who simultaneously held the land-speed and water-speed records. In 1964 he set the world water-speed record of 444.57 kph/276.3 mph on Lake Dumbleyung, Australia, with the turbojet hydroplane Bluebird, and achieved the land-speed record of 648.7 kp...

carbon fibre
Fine, black, silky, continuous filament of pure carbon produced by heating organic fibres, such as cellulose, in an inert atmosphere, and used for reinforcing plastics, epoxy, and polyester resins. The resulting composite is very stiff and, weight for weight, has four times the strength of high-tensile steel. It is used in the aerospace industr...

catamaran
Twin-hulled sailing vessel, based on the native craft of South America and the Indies, made of logs lashed together, with an outrigger. A similar vessel with three hulls is known as a trimaran. Car ferries with a wave-piercing catamaran design are also in use in parts of Europe and North America. They have a pointed main hull and two outrig...

carburation
Any process involving chemical combination with carbon, especially the mixing or charging of a gas, such as air, with volatile compounds of carbon (petrol, kerosene, or fuel oil) in order to increase potential heat energy during combustion. Carburation applies to combustion in the cylinders of reciprocating petrol engines of the types used in aircr...

Carnot cycle
Series of changes in the physical condition of a gas in a reversible heat engine, necessarily in the following order: (1) isothermal expansion (without change of temperature), (2) adiabatic expansion (without change of heat content), (3) isothermal compression, and (4) adiabatic compression. The principles derived from a study of this cycle are...

cathode-ray tube
Vacuum tube in which a beam of electrons is produced and focused onto a fluorescent screen. The electrons' kinetic energy is converted into light energy as they collide with the screen. It is an essential component of one type of television receiver, of computer visual display units, and of oscilloscopes. The screen of the CRT is coated on the ...

cable car
Method of transporting passengers up steep slopes by cable. In the cable railway, passenger cars are hauled along rails by a cable wound by a powerful winch. A pair of cars usually operates together on the funicular principle, one going up as the other goes down. The other main type is the aerial cab...

callipers
Measuring instrument used, for example, to measure the internal and external diameters of pipes. Some callipers are made like a pair of compasses, having two legs, often curved, pivoting about a screw at one end. The ends of the legs are placed in contact with the object to be measured, and the gap between the ends is then measured against a rule. ...

cam
Part of a machine that converts circular motion to linear motion or vice versa. The edge cam in a car engine is in the form of a rounded projection on a shaft, the camshaft. When the camshaft turns, the cams press against linkages (plungers or followers) that open the valves in the cylinders. A face cam is a disc with a groove in its face, in which...

cantilever
Beam or structure that is fixed at one end only, though it may be supported at some point along its length; for example, a diving board. The cantilever principle, widely used in construction engineering, eliminates the need for a second main support at the free end of the beam, allowing for more elegant structures and reducing the amount of mat...

casting
Process of producing solid objects by pouring molten material into a shaped mould and allowing it to cool. Casting is used to shape such materials as glass and plastics, as well as metals and alloys. The casting of metals has been practised for approximately 5,000 years using first gold, copper, and bronze, then iron, and now alloys of zinc and oth...

cast iron
Cheap but invaluable constructional material, most commonly used for car engine blocks. Cast iron is partly refined pig (crude) iron, which is very fluid when molten and highly suitable for shaping by casting; it contains too many impurities (for example, carbon) to be readily shaped in any other way. Solid cast iron is heavy and can absorb gre...

caterpillar track
Trade name for an endless flexible belt of metal plates on which certain vehicles such as tanks and bulldozers run, which takes the place of ordinary tyred wheels and improves performance on wet or uneven surfaces. A track-laying vehicle has a track on each side, and its engine drives small cogwheels that run along the top of the track in conta...

calorimeter
Instrument used in physics to measure various thermal properties, such as heat capacity or the heat produced by fuel. A simple calorimeter consists of a heavy copper vessel that is polished (to reduce heat losses by radiation) and covered with insulating material (to reduce losses by convection and c...

cation
Ion carrying a positive charge. During electrolysis, cations in the electrolyte move to the cathode (negative electrode). Cations are formed from atoms by loss of electrons during ionic bonding. Metals form cations

Calvin, Melvin
US chemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1961 for his study of the assimilation of carbon dioxide by plants. Using radioactive carbon-14 as a tracer, he determined the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, in which green plants use chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen

Cannizzaro, Stanislao
Italian chemist who revived interest in the work of Avogadro that had, in 1811, revealed the difference between atoms and molecules, and so established atomic and molecular weights as the basis of chemical calculations. Cannizzaro also worked in aromatic organic chemistry. In 1853 he discovered reactions (named after him) that make benzyl alcohol a...

casein
Main protein of milk, from which it can be separated by the action of acid, the enzyme rennin, or bacteria (souring); it is also the main protein in cheese. Casein is used as a protein supplement in the treatment of malnutrition. It is used commercially in cosmetics, glues, and as a sizing for coating paper

cassiterite
Mineral consisting of reddish-brown to black stannic oxide (SnO2), usually found in granite rocks. It is the chief ore of tin. When fresh it has a bright (`adamantine`) lustre. It was formerly extensively mined in Cornwall, England; today Malaysia is the world's main supplier. Other sources of cassiterit...

Capra, Frank
Italian-born US film director. His satirical comedies, which often have the common man pitted against corrupt institutions, were hugely successful in the Depression years of the 1930s. He won Academy Awards for the It Happened One Night (1934), Mr Deeds Goes to Town (1936), and You Can't Take I...

Capri
Italian island at the southern entrance of the Bay of Naples; 32 km/20 mi south of Naples; area 13 sq km/5 sq mi; population (1987 est) 7,800. It has two towns, Capri and Anacapri, a profusion of flowers, beautiful scenery, and an ideal climate. The Blue Grotto on the north coast is an important tourist attraction

Caroline Islands
Scattered archipelago in Micronesia, Pacific Ocean, consisting of over 500 coral islets; area 1,200 sq km/463 sq mi. The chief islands are Ponape, Kusai, and Truk in the eastern group, and Yap and Palau in the western group. Products include coconuts, cassava, copra, sugar cane, and fish, especially bonito. The Caroline Islands are well wat...

castration
Removal of the sex glands (either ovaries or testes). Male domestic animals may be castrated to prevent reproduction, to make them larger or more docile, or to eradicate disease. Castration of humans was used in ancient and medieval times and occasionally later to preserve the treble voice of boy singers or, by Muslims, to provide eunuchs, trustwor...

cathedral
Click images to enlargePrincipal Christian church of a bishop or archbishop, containing his throne, which is usually situated on the south side of the choir. In the Middle Ages, cathedrals were used for state occasions, such as parliaments, and they are still used for royal coronations and weddings, and state funerals. Ma...

Catherine I
Empress of Russia from 1725. A Lithuanian peasant, born Martha Skavronsky, she married a Swedish dragoon and eventually became the mistress of Peter the Great. In 1703 she was rechristened Katarina Alexeievna. The tsar divorced his wife in 1711 and married Catherine in 1712. She accompanied him on his campaigns, and showed tact and shrewdness. In 1...

capacitor
Device for storing electric charge, used in electronic circuits; it consists of two or more metal plates separated by an insulating layer called a dielectric (see capacitance). Its capacitance is the ratio of the charge stored on either plate to the potential difference between the plates

Cartier, Jacques
French navigator who, while seeking a northwest passage to China and Japan in 1535, was the first European to sail up the St Lawrence River, Canada. On this expedition, he named the site of Montréal. In 1534, on his first voyage from his home town of St Malo in Brittany, Cartier ventured as far as L'Île d'Anticosti off the coast o...

catacomb
Underground burial chambers, such as the catacombs of the early Christians. Examples include those beneath the basilica of St Sebastian in Rome, where bodies were buried in niches in the walls of the tunnels

Catania
(town) Industrial port in Sicily on the Gulf of Catania, just south of Mount Etna; population (2001) 313,100. It is the capital of the province of Catania. It exports local sulphur; there are also shipbuilding, textile, and light industries

catastrophe theory
Mathematical theory developed by René Thom in 1972, in which he showed that the growth of an organism proceeds by a series of gradual changes that are triggered by, and in turn trigger, large-scale changes or `catastrophic` jumps. It also has applications in engineering – for example, the gradual strain on the structure of a...

Cather, Willa Sibert
US novelist and short-story writer. Her novels frequently explore life in the pioneer West, both in her own time and in past eras; for example, O Pioneers! (1913) and My Antonia (1918), and A Lost Lady (1923). Death Comes for the Archbishop (1927) is a celebrati...

Catherine of Aragón
First queen of Henry VIII of England, 1509–33, and mother of Mary I. Catherine had married Henry's elder brother Prince Arthur in 1501 and on his death in 1502 was betrothed to Henry, marrying him on his accession. She failed to produce a male heir and Henry divorced her without papal approv...

Catskill Mountains
Mountain range in southeastern New York State, USA, forming part of the Appalachian Mountains west of the Hudson River; drained by headwaters of the Delaware River; the highest peaks are Slide Mountain (1,281 m/4,204 ft) and Hunter Mountain (1,227 m/4,026 ft). The Catskill Mountains have long been a vacation and resort centre for re...

Catullus, Gaius Valerius
Roman lyric poet. He wrote in a variety of metres and forms, from short narratives and hymns to epigrams. He moved with ease through the literary and political society of late republican Rome. His love affair with the woman he called `Lesbia` provided the inspiration for many of his poems

Caxton, William
English printer. He learned the art of printing in Cologne, Germany, in 1471 and set up a press in Belgium where he produced the first book printed in English, his own version of a French romance, Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (1474). Returning to England in 1476, he established himself in London, where he produced the first...

Cayenne
Capital and chief port of the overseas département of French Guiana in South America; situated on Cayenne Island on the Atlantic coast at the mouth of the River Cayenne; population (1999 est) 50,600. The main occupation is fishing, of which fresh and processed shrimp constitute nearly 75% of total exports by valu...

Catherine of Valois
Queen of Henry V of England, whom she married in 1420; the mother of Henry VI. After the death of Henry V, she secretly married Owen Tudor (c. 1400–1461) about 1425, and their son Edmund Tudor was the father of Henry VII

Catholic Church
The whole body of the Christian church, though usually referring to the Roman Catholic Church (see Roman Catholicism)

Catholic Emancipation
In British history, acts of Parliament passed between 1780 and 1829 to relieve Roman Catholics of civil and political restrictions imposed from the time of Henry VIII and the Reformation

Catiline
Roman politician and conspirator. Catiline was a member of an impoverished patrician family and a former partisan of Sulla. Twice failing to be elected to the consulship in 64 BC and 63 BC, he planned a military coup, but Cicero exposed his conspiracy. He died at the head of the insurgents

Caucasus
Mountain range extending from the Taman Peninsula on the Black Sea to the Apsheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea, a total length of 1,200 km/750 mi. The Caucasus, which form the boundary between Europe and Asia, is divided into the Greater Caucasus (northern) and Little Caucasus (southern) chains. The range crosses the territory of two major reg...

calotype
Paper-based photograph using a wax paper negative, the first example of the negative/positive process invented by the English photographer Fox Talbot around 1834

camera obscura
Darkened box with a tiny hole for projecting the inverted image of the scene outside on to a screen inside. For its development as a device for producing photographs, see photography

Cajun
Member of a French-speaking community of Louisiana, USA, descended from French Canadians. In the 18th century these people were driven to Louisiana from Nova Scotia (then known as Acadia, from which the name Cajun comes). The modern Cajun people are known for their music, which has a lively rhythm and features steel guitar, fiddle, and accordio...

Carreras, José Maria
Spanish operatic tenor. His comprehensive repertoire includes Handel's Samson and his recordings include West Side Story (1984) under US composer Leonard Bernstein. His vocal presence, charmingly insinuating rather than forceful, is favoured for Italian and French romantic roles. In 1987 he became seriously...

Carlsson, Ingvar Gösta
Swedish socialist politician. Leader of the Social Democratic Labour Party (SDAP) 1986–96, he was deputy prime minister 1982–86 and prime minister 1986–91 and 1994–96. After studying in Sweden and the USA, Carlsson became president of the Swedish Social Democratic Youth League in 1961. He was elected to the Riksdag (parliament) ...

canon
(music) Piece or passage of contrapuntal music in which one voice repeats the part of another, like an echo. The first vocal or instrumental part begins with the melody and is followed soon after by the second part imitating that melody note for note (though often starting on a different note ...

caterpillar
Larval stage of a butterfly or moth. Wormlike in form, the body is segmented, may be hairy, and often has scent glands. The head has strong biting mandibles, silk glands, and a spinneret. Many caterpillars resemble the plant on which they feed, dry twigs, or rolled leaves. Others are highly coloured and rely for their protection on their irritant h...

campion
Any of several plants belonging to the pink family. They include the garden campion (Lychnis coronaria), the wild white and red campions (Silene alba and S. dioica), and the bladder campion (S. vulgaris). (Genera Lychnis and Silene, fam...