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The History Channel - Encyclopedia Category: History and Culture > History Date & country: 02/12/2007, UK Words: 25833

Tawfiq al-Hakim
Egyptian dramatist; see Hakim. ...

Tawney, James Albertus
(1855-1919) US Republican representative. He served in the Minnesota Senate and later in the US House of Representatives (1893-1911), becoming majority whip and chairman of the committee on appropriations....

Tawney, Lenore
(1907) US weaver. She influenced a generation of American weavers with her nonfunctional hangings. Her 1950s work influenced by abstract expressionism gave way to figurative pieces with religious themes,...

Tawney, Richard Henry
(1880-1962) English economic historian, social critic, and reformer. He had a great influence on the Labour Party, especially during the 1930s, although he never became a member of Parliament. His Labour and...

tax avoidance
Conducting of financial affairs in such a way as to keep tax liability to a minimum within the law. ...

tax deductible
Any item that may be offset against tax liability, such as the cost of a car where it is required as an integral part of a job, is termed `tax deductible`. ...

tax evasion
Failure to meet tax liabilities by illegal action, such as not declaring income. Tax evasion is a criminal offence. ...

tax haven
Country or state where taxes are much lower than elsewhere. Tax havens are often used by companies from different countries that register in the tax haven in order to avoid paying tax. Any business...

tax loophole
Gap in the law that can be exploited to gain a tax advantage not intended by the government when the law was made. ...

tax shelter
Investment opportunity designed to reduce the tax burden on an individual or group of individuals but at the same time to stimulate finance in the direction of a particular location or activity....

tax year
Twelve-month period over which an individual or company calculates its income and liability to pay tax. The British tax year runs from 6 April of one year to 5 April the following year. ...

Tax, Sol
(1907-1995) US cultural anthropologist. He was noted for the field studies he carried out among the North American, Guatemalan, and Mexican Indians; he also had a long career as a professor of anthropology at...

taxation
Raising of money from individuals and organizations by the state in order to pay for the goods and services it provides. Taxation can be direct (a deduction from income) or indirect (added to the...

Taylor, A(lan) J(ohn) P(ercivale)
(1906-1990) English historian and television lecturer. His books include The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848-1918 (1954), The Origins of the Second World War (1961), and...

Taylor, Albert Davis
(1883-1951) US landscape architect. Trained by Warren Manning, he opened a firm in Cleveland, Ohio (1916-51), drafting plans that combined naturalistic parks with formal gardens near buildings for clients...

Taylor, Bayard
(1825-1878) US traveller, journalist, and writer. He travelled widely in Europe (1844-45) and the Near and Far East (1851-53); he became a master's mate aboard Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan in 1853....

Taylor, C(ecil) P(hilip)
(1929-1981) Scottish dramatist. His stage plays include Bread and Butter (1966), And a Nightingale Sang.. (1979), and Good (1981), a study of intellectual complicity in Nazi Germany. His work was first produced...

Taylor, Charles Ghankay
(1948) Liberian warlord leader in the early 1990s and head of state 1997-2003. He was leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), part of the force that launched an armed uprising from Cote...

Taylor, Edward
(1642-1729) American Puritan minister and poet. His complex sequences of poems, including God's Determinations Touching His Electc. 1680 and the 217-poem Preparatory Meditations 1682-1725, are influenced by...

Taylor, Elizabeth
(1912-1975) English novelist. Her books include At Mrs Lippincote's (1946) and Angel (1957). She is a shrewd observer of nuances of character and emotion. ...

Taylor, Francis Henry
(1903-1957) US museum director. He was director of the Worcester Museum of Art (1931-40), which he turned into the best small city museum in America. As director of the Metropolitan Museum (1940-55), he...

Taylor, Graham
(1851-1938) US Protestant clergyman and civic reformer. Eager to adapt Christianity to urban problems and involve students, he saw the creation of a settlement house as a means of accomplishing both goals. He...

Taylor, Henry Osborn
(1856-1941) US historian. His Treatise on the Law of Private Corporations (1884) became a standard text. Turning from legal theory to the evolution of human ideals, his Mediaeval Mind (1911) was considered a...

Taylor, Jeremy
(1613-1667) English prelate, author, and scholar of the late Renaissance period. Having taken holy orders in 1634, Taylor was subsequently educated at Oxford and Cambridge, and became one of the king's...

Taylor, John
(1753-1824) US political philosopher, Democrat senator (1792-94, 1803, 1822-24), and agriculturist. He opposed the Federal Constitution because it did not sufficiently protect individual and states' rights....

Taylor, Lance (Jerome)
(1940) US economist. He was a consultant for the World Bank, the United Nations, and several foreign governments, and is the author of Macro Models for Developing Countries (1979) and other works. Taylor...

Taylor, Lily Ross
(1886-1969) US classicist and ancient historian. Her seven books and more than 70 articles focused on Roman politics and political institutions, including the cults of Ostia and Etruria. Her Divinity of the...

Taylor, Lucy Beaman
(1833-1910) US dentist. The first American woman to earn a dental degree (1866), she did so only after years of being refused admission to dental schools (1859-65). Practising with her husband in Lawrence,...

Taylor, Margaret
(1788-1852) US first lady. She married Zachary Taylor in 1810 but went to Washington reluctantly and was little-known as first lady. Following Taylor's death in office she lived with her son in Mississippi....

Taylor, Matthew
(1963) British Liberal Democrat politician, chair of the parliamentary party from 2003. He was the party's environment spokesperson 1994-99 and shadow chancellor 1999-2003. He was elected MP for Truro...

Taylor, Maxwell D(avenport)
(1901-1987) US soldier. In World War II, he commanded the 101st Airborne Division and was the first general to land in Normandy on D-Day. He was superintendent of West Point (1945-49) and served as military...

Taylor, Mildred D
(1943) US writer. She has written realistic stories to help teach children about racism. Her books tell of the lives of black people in racially prejudiced white communities, and they often show the...

Taylor, Moses
(1806-1882) US banker. In 1855 he became president of City Bank in New York where his policy was to hold large cash reserves. He dabbled in railroads, public utilities, and helped the Lincoln administration...

Taylor, Nathaniel William
(1786-1858) US Protestant theologian. His `New Haven theology`, long assailed as heresy, denied the Calvinistic doctrine of sin as depravity. He contributed controversial articles to the Christian Spectator...

Taylor, Robert
(1714-1788) English Neo-Palladian architect and sculptor. He was immensely successful during his lifetime, although little of his work has survived. Stone Building in Lincoln's Inn Fields, London (1775), is...

Taylor, Robert Love
(1850-1912) US Democrat representative, senator, and governor. Elected to the US House of Representatives (1879-81), governor of Tennessee (1887-91, 1897-99), and senator (1907-12), he won fame and...

Taylor, Rowland
English Protestant archdeacon and martyr. Born in Rothbury, Northumberland, he became chaplain to Cranmer 1540, incumbent of Hadleigh, Suffolk, 1544, and archdeacon of Exeter 1552. He was one of the...

Taylor, Tom
(1817-1880) English dramatist and editor of Punch. Professor of English literature at London University 1845-47, and secretary to the Local Government Board 1854-71, he was the author of about one hundred...

Taylor, Walter W(illard)
(1913-1997) US archaeologist. His Study of Archaeology (1948) attacked traditional taxonomic methodology and called for more stringent excavations and analysis of material. A specialist in the neolithic and...

Taylor, Zachary
(1784-1850) 12th president of the USA 1849-50. A veteran of the War of 1812 and a hero of the Mexican War 1846-48, he was nominated for the presidency by the Whigs in 1848 and was elected, but died less...

Tchernaya, Battle of
In the Crimean War, Russian defeat by a combined French and Piedmontese force 16 August 1855 on the Tchernaya River during the siege of Sevastopol. This was the final Russian attempt to raise the...

TD
Abbreviation for Teachta Dála (Irish `a member of the Irish parliament`). ...

Te Puea, Herangi
(1883-1952) New Zealand Maori nationalist leader. Born in Waikato, on North Island, into a chiefly family, she became a leading figure, from 1911, within the Maori nationalist movement,...

Tè, Palazzo del
A palace near the city of Mantua in northern Italy, built 1525-35. It was designed and decorated by the Italian artist and architect Giulio Romano for Federico II Gonzaga, marchese and (later)...

Teagarden, Jack
(1905-1964) US jazz musician. He was a trombonist and singer whose relaxed, melodic instrumental style was highly influential. He was a featured sideman with Ben Pollack and Paul Whiteman 1927-38, led his own...

Teale, Edwin Way
(1899-1980) US naturalist and author. His first nature book, Grassroots Jungles, appeared in 1937 and helped promote an appreciation of the environment long before it became a cause. Wandering through Winter,...

Teapot Dome Scandal
US political scandal that revealed the corruption of President Harding's administration. It centred on the le ...

Teasdale, Sara
(1884-1933) US poet. Her early poetry, such as Love Songs (1917), was marked by a delicate lyricism, but her later poems, as in Strange Victory (1933), reveal a more intense core. Afflicted with bouts of...

Tebbit, Norman Beresford
(1931) British Conservative politician. He was minister for employment 1981-83, minister for trade and industry 1983-85, chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster...

Teck
German noble family with connections to British royalty. The family name was taken from a castle of Wurttemberg. Francis, a prince of Wurttemberg, who became Duke of Teck, married Mary Adelaide,...

Tecton
Distinguished firm of British architects, established by Bernhold Lubetkin. Denys Lasdun was at one time a partner. They designed the Penguin Pool and Gorilla House at London Zoo (1934-38); two...

Tecumseh
(1768-1813) American Indian chief of the Shawnee. He attempted to unite the Indian peoples from Canada to Florida against the encroachment of white settlers, but the defeat of his brother Tenskwatawa, `the...

Tedder, Arthur William
(1890-1967) UK marshal of the Royal Air Force in World War II. As deputy supreme commander under US general Eisenhower 1943-45, he was largely responsible for the initial success of the 1944 Normandy...

Tefft, Thomas Alexander
(1826-1859) US architect. In his brief architectural career (1851-56) he designed 150 east-coast buildings of various types and in popular styles, including the Railroad Station, Providence, Rhode Island...

tefillin
In Judaism, two small leather boxes containing scrolls from the Torah, that are strapped to the left arm and the forehead by Jewish men for daily prayer. The tefillin on the arm points to the heart,...

Tegh Bahadur
(1621-1675) Indian religious leader, ninth guru (teacher) of Sikhism 1664-75, executed for refusing to renounce his faith. Tegh Bahadurtook over the struggle to maintain the Sikh faith in the face of extreme...

Tegnér, Esaias
(1782-1846) Swedish poet, literary critic, and Lutheran bishop. Tegnér's patriotic ode `Svea` 1811 was awarded a prize by the Swedish Academy. Although he wrote first in the Romantic idiom, he gradually...

Tehran Conference
Conference held in 1943 in Tehran, Iran, the first meeting of World War II Allied leaders Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. The chief subject discussed was coordination of Allied strategy in Western...

Teignmouth, John Shore
(1751-1834) British governor general of India, and president of the British and Foreign Bible Society He entered the service of the East India Company as a cadet at the age of 18. A man of great personal...

Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre
(1881-1955) French Jesuit theologian, palaeontologist, and philosopher. He developed a creative synthesis of nature and religion, based on his fieldwork and fossil studies. Publication of his Le Phénomène...

Teixeira, de Pascoaes
(1879-1952) Portuguese poet and essayist. His early work was lyrical. Later prose writings focused on the metaphysical questions of the nature of good and evil and the progress of humanity. His works include...

Tekakwitha, Blessed Kateri
(1656-1680) American Indian Catholic convert. When she was three years old, a smallpox epidemic killed her mother (a Catholic but not allowed to practice) and father; she herself was scarred and partially...

Tel Quel
French literary magazine founded 1960 by the critic Philippe Sollers. Its aims were originally aesthetic but became increasingly ideological. It promoted the writings of the Marquis de Sade,...

Tel-el-Kebir, Battle of
British victory over Egyptian rebels 13 September 1882 at Tel-el-Kebir, a stretch of desert some 65 km/40 mi northeast of Cairo, Egypt. Egypt had been jointly administered by the British and...

Telamon
In Greek mythology, the brother of Peleus. He became king of Salamis and was the father of Ajax by his second wife, Periboea. With Peleus, Telamon killed Phocus, their half-brother, and fled from...

Telegonus
In Greek mythology, the son of Odysseus and the enchantress Circe. Sent by her to find Odysseus, he killed him, not knowing who he was. Later he married his father's widow, Penelope. ...

telekinesis
Another name for psychokinesis. ...

Telemachus
In Greek mythology, son of Odysseus and Penelope. He was a child when his father set out for the Trojan wars. In Homer's Odyssey, he attempted to control his mother's suitors while his father was...

Telemaque
Slave and insurrection leader; see Denmark Vesey. ...

telemarketing
Direct marketing using the telephone to contact and market to potential customers. Double glazing, timeshare holidays, and weatherproofing are all examples of products that frequently use...

teleology
The view that developments and changes in organisms or systems are due to the purposes, goals, ends, or design served by them (see argument from design). This belief that all evolution is purposive...

telephone tapping
Listening in on a telephone conversation, without the knowledge of the participants; in the UK and the USA this is a criminal offence if done without a warrant or the consent...

televangelist
In North America, a fundamentalist Christian minister, often of a Pentecostal church, who hosts a television show and solicits donations from viewers. Well-known televangelists include Jim Bakker,...

Telford, Thomas
(1757-1834) Scottish civil engineer. He opened up northern Scotland by building...

Telissu, Battle of
During the Russo-Japanese War, Russian defeat by the Japanese 15 June 1904, close to Telissu (now Songshu) about 120 km/75 mi northwest of Port Arthur. This was the only Russian attempt to relieve...

Tell el Amarna
Site of the ancient Egyptian capital Akhetaton. The Amarna tablets were found there. ...

Tell, William (German Wilhelm)
Legendary 14th-century Swiss archer, said to have refused to salute the Habsburg badge at Altdorf on Lake Lucerne. Sentenced to shoot an apple from his son's head, he did so, then shot the...

Teller, Henry Moore
(1830-1914) US senator. Elected as one of Colorado's first two senators (Republican, 1877-82), he resigned to serve as secretary of the interior under President Chester Arthur (1882-85). He returned to the...

Tellus
In Roman mythology, the goddess of the Earth, identified with a number of other agricultural gods and celebrations. ...

Tempe, Vale of
Valley in northern Thessaly, Greece, renowned for its beautiful scenery. It was the traditional scene of Apollo's purification after the killing of the serpent Python,...

tempera
Painting medium in which powdered pigments are mixed with a water-soluble binding agent such as egg yolk removed from its sac. It is noted for its strong, translucent colours, and can be thinned...

temperance movement
Societies dedicated to curtailing the consumption of alcohol by total prohibition, local restriction, or encouragement of declarations of personal abstinence (`the pledge`). Temperance movements...

Tempest, The
Painting by the Italian Renaissance artist Giorgione 1504 (Accademia, Venice). The subject...

Tempest, The
Romantic drama by William Shakespeare, first performed 1611-12, in London. Prospero, usurped as Duke of Milan by his brother Antonio, lives on a remote island with his daughter Miranda and...

Tempietto
The Church of S Pietro in Montorio, Rome, built by Donato Bramante. Its site on the Janiculum was reputedly the place of St Peter's crucifixion. The design, completed in 1502, was based on the...

Templars
Military religious order founded in Jerusalem 1119-20 to protect pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land. They played an important part in the Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries. Innocent II...

temple
Structure designed for religious worship. In US usage, temple is another name for synagogue. In Hindu usage a temple is called a mandir. In Buddhism, the temple provides an opportunity for puja,...

Temple Bar
Former western gateway of the City of London, between Fleet Street and the Strand (site marked by a stone griffin); the heads of traitors were formerly displayed above it on spikes. It was rebuilt...

Temple Mount
Holy site on top of Mount Moriah in Jerusalem, on which the Temple of Jerusalem stood. The Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock, and the al-Aqsa mosque are now situated here, though the Wailing...

Temple of Jerusalem
Centre of Jewish national worship in Jerusalem, in both ancient and modern times, sited on Mount Moriah (or ...

Temple, William
(1881-1944) English church leader, archbishop of Canterbury 1942-44. He was a major ecumenical figure who strove to achieve church unity. His theological writings constantly sought to apply Christian...

Templer, Gerald Walter Robert
(1898-1979) British field marshal. He served in both world wars, but is especially remembered for his work as high commissioner in Malaysia 1952-54, during the period of fighting against communist insurgents....

ten bagger
In finance, a share that increases in value ten-fold, that is 1000%, in a very short period of time. Chiefly associated with Internet stocks, the term has been attributed to Peter Lynch, author of...

Ten Commandments
In the Old Testament, the laws given by God to the Hebrew leader Moses on Mount Sinai, engraved on two tablets of stone. They are: 1. to have...

Ten Hours Act
1847 British act of Parliament that restricted the working day of all workers except adult males. It was prompted by the public campaign (the `Ten Hours Movement`) set up 1831. Women and young...

Ten Moral Precepts
Rules of behaviour or restraint followed by the Tenakh
Hebrew name for the Hebrew Bible, or Old Testament. The word is formed from...

Tenby, Gwilym Lloyd George
(1894-1967) Welsh politician. He was the son of David Lloyd George. He entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1922 and, after holding a number of minor offices, was made minister of food 1941-42, and minister of...

Tench, Watkin
(c. 1759-1833) English-born military officer and author in Australia. He arrived in New South Wales with the First Fleet in command of a detachment of marines. While in the colony he discovered the Nepean River...

Tendai
Japanese form of the Chinese T'ien T'ai school of Buddhism, introduced to Japan by Japanese monk Saicho (767-822), posthumously known as Dengyo Daishi, in 805. Tendai teaches of the Buddha...