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The History Channel - Encyclopedia Category: History and Culture > History Date & country: 02/12/2007, UK Words: 25833

Indian architecture
Architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Essentially, there are four periods or styles in Indian architecture: Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Western. In function, design, and decoration, Indian...

Indian art
Arts of the Indian subcontinent (present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh). Indian art dates back to the ancient Indus Valley civilization, about 3000-1500 BC, centred on the cities of...

Indian literature
Literature of the Indian subcontinent, written in Sanskrit, in the Dravidian languages such as Tamil, in the vernacular languages derived from Sanskrit, such as Urdu and Hindi, and, largely in the...

Indian Mutiny
Revolt of Indian soldiers (sepoys) against the British in India from 1857 to 1858. The uprising was confined to the north, from Bengal to the Punjab, and central India. It led to...

Indian National Army
In World War II, force recruited to fight for the Japanese from Indian prisoners of war by Subhas Chandra Bhose, a disaffected Indian nationalist politician. It was...

Indian National Congress
Official name for the Congress Party of India. See India: history 1858-1947, emergence of Indian nationalism. ...

Indian Removal Act
US federal act signed by President Andrew Jackson on 28 May 1830 empowering him to offer land in Indian Territory to all American Indians situated east of the Mississippi River, in exchange for...

Indian Reorganization Act
US federal act passed in 18 June 1934, aimed at re-establishing government by American Indian peoples and preserving American Indian culture. A survey of reservation life under the Indian reservation
Land in the USA held in trust by the federal or a state government for a specified group (`tribe`) of American Indians, or `Indians`. US reservations range in size from a few acres to the...

Indian Territory
Initially most of the land west of the Mississippi River; after 1834 the term was restricted to the present state of Oklahoma. After the Indian Relocation Act of 1830, most of the American Indians...

Indian, American
See American Indian. ...

Indian, Andean
See Andean Indian. ...

Indiana, Robert
(1928) US painter. Based in New York City from 1954, he was a major force of the pop art movement of the 1960s, an avant-garde approach that used hard-edge abstraction and ordinary objects seen in...

indigenous
The people, animals, or plants that are native to a country, but especially a people whose territory has been colonized by others (particularly Europeans). In 1995 it was estimated that there were...

Indirect Rule
System of colonial government widely employed by the British for the administration of colonies. Indirect rule sought to encourage and govern through local institutions and traditional authorities...

indirect tax
Tax on products or services. VAT (value-added tax) and excise duties are examples of indirect taxes. The opposite of an indirect tax is a direct tax, a tax on income. ...

individualism
In politics, a view in which the individual takes precedence over the collective: the opposite of collectivism. The term possessive individualism has been applied to the writings of John Locke and...

Indochina War
War of independence 1946-54 between the nationalist forces of what was to become Vietnam and France, the occupying colonial power. In 1945 Vietnamese nationalist communist leader Ho Chi Minh...

Indonesia
Country in southeast Asia, made up of 13,677 islands situated on or near the Equator, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the world's fourth most populous country, surpassed only by China,...

Indra
Hindu god of the sky, shown as a four-armed man on a white elephant, carrying a thunderbolt. The intoxicating drink soma is associated with him. ...

Indritz, Phineas
(1916-1997) US attorney and women's rights activist. Described as `an unsung hero of the movement for social justice and equal treatment under law`, Indritz authored the Pregnancy Disability Act of 1978 and...

induction
In philosophy, the process of observing particular instances of things in order to derive general statements and laws of nature. It is the opposite of deduction, which moves from general statements...

indulgence
In the Roman Catholic Church, the total or partial remission of temporal punishment for sins for which amendment needs to be made after penitence and confession have secured exemption from eternal...

Indus Valley civilization
One of the four earliest ancient civilizations of the Old World (the other three being the Sumerian civilization of 3500 BC;Egypt 3000 BC; and China 2200 BC), developing in the northwest of the...

Industrial architecture
Any type of building that has emerged as a direct result of the Industrial Revolution, for example factories, warehouses, stations, office buildings, department stores, and certain types of bridge....

industrial democracy
Means whereby employees may have a share in the decisions taken by the firm in which they work, and, therefore, a share of responsibility for its success or failure. In 1975 the UK government...

industrial design
Branch of artistic activity that came into being as a result of the need to design machine-made products, introduced by the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. The purpose of industrial...

industrial dispute
Disagreement between an employer and its employees, usually represented by a trade union, over some aspect of the terms or conditions of employment. A dispute is often followed by...

industrial law
The body of law relating to relationships between employers (and their representatives), employees (and their representatives), and government. ...

Industrial Revolution
Acceleration of technical and economic development that took place in Britain in the second half of the 18th century. The traditional agricultural economy was replaced by one dominated by machinery...

industrial sector
Any of the different groups into which industries may be divided: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Primary industries extract or use raw materials; for example, mining and agriculture....

Industrial Society
British independent organization whose members include employers and trade unions in the private and public sectors and which concerns itself with human problems in industry, including the field of...

industrial tribunal
Independent panel that rules on disputes between employers and employees or trade unions relating to statutory terms and conditions of employment. Employment issues brought before it include unfair...

industrial union
Union that recruits workers in only one industry. The National Union of Railwaymen and the National Union of Miners are two examples. ...

Industrial Workers of the World
Labour movement founded in Chicago, USA in 1905, and in Australia in 1907, the members of which were popularly known as the Wobblies. The IWW was dedicated to the overthrow of capitalism and the...

industrialist, US
An owner, manager, or financier of a manufacturing enterprise in the USA, particularly during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. These leaders were involved in industries such as iron,...

Ine
(lived 689-726) King of Wessex. He forced compensation for the death of Cadwallon's brother from Kent in 694, defeated Geraint of western Wales in 710, fought in Wiltshire against the Mercians, and in 725 crushed a...

inelastic demand
Demand where a proportionate change in price (say 10%) leads to a lesser proportionate change in quantity demanded (say 5%). Formally, it is when the elasticity of demand is between 0 and 1. ...

INF
Abbreviation for intermediate nuclear forces, as in the Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty. ...

infallibility
Inability to err in matters of doctrine. In Christianity different beliefs are found. Some believe that only God is infallible, o ...

infant
A child below full legal age; see minor. ...

infante
Title given in Spain and Portugal to the sons (infante), other than the heir apparent, and daughters (infanta), respectively, of the sovereign. The heir apparent in Spain bears the title...

infanticide
In law, the killing of a child under 12 months old, and more generally, any killing of a newborn child. It is often seen as a method of population control, especially among hunter-gatherers and...

inflation
In economics, a rise in the general level of prices. The many causes include cost-push inflation, which results from rising production costs. Demand-pull inflation occurs when overall demand for...

inflation accounting
Method of accounting that allows for the changing purchasing power of money due to inflation. ...

inflation tax
Tax imposed on companies that increase wages by more than an amount fixed by law (except to take account of increased profits or because of a profit-sharing scheme). ...

Information, Ministry of
British government department created in 1939, at the beginning of World War II, to control the supply and content of information about the war. It distributed British government propaganda and...

infrared absorption spectrometry
Technique used to determine the mineral or chemical composition of artefacts and organic substances, particularly amber. A sample is bombarded by infrared radiation, which causes the atoms in it to...

infrastructure
Relatively permanent facilities that serve an industrial economy. Infrastructure usually includes roads, railways, other communication networks, energy and water supply, and education and training...

Ingalls, John James
(1833-1900) US senator. He was among the framers of the Kansas state constitution and served as a Republican for Kansas in the US Senate 1873-92. Renowned for his oratory, he was president pro tem of the...

Inge, William (Motter)
(1913-1973) US playwright. He was a film, music, and drama critic in St Louis, Missouri 1943-46, taught intermittently, and moved to New York City where he became a screenwriter, television playwright, and...

Inge, William Ralph
(1860-1954) English philosopher and dean of St Paul's in London 1911-1934. As a Christian Platonist and an expert on Plotinus, he believed that self-disciplined prayer admitted the individual to an eternal...

Ingelow, Jean
(1820-1897) English novelist and poet. The volume Poems 1863 contains `The High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire, 1571` and `A Story of Doom` 1867. Among her novels are Mopsa the Fairy 1869, Off the...

Ingersoll, Robert (Green)
(1833-1899) US lawyer and orator. He served as Illinois attorney general 1867-69, then took to the lecture circuit to promote a secular religion of scientific rationalism that Thomas H Huxley called...

Ingersoll, Royal (Eason)
(1883-1976) US naval officer who was the communications officer for the US delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference 1918-19. He was commander of the Atlantic Fleet 1942-44, and the landings in North...

Inglis, Charles
(1734-1816) US Anglican bishop. He was a loyalist during the American Revolution and travelled to Halifax, Nova Scotia, when the English evacuated New York City. Consecrated in London in 1787 as first Bishop of...

Ingraham, Hubert (Alexander)
(1947) Bahamian politician, prime minister 1992-2002. A minister of housing and social services in Lynden Pindling's Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) administration, he was dismissed from the cabinet in...

Ingraham, Prentiss
(1843-1904) US writer. He became a writer of popular historical `dime novels` for the Beadle series; he also wrote plays, short stories, and poetry. He was best known for writing a highly romantic biography...

Ingrams, Richard Reid
(1943) English journalist. In 1962 he founded the satirical magazine Private Eye with Peter Cook, Willie Rushton, and other new-wave satirists. He served as editor 1963-86 and produced numerous...

Ingulf
(died 1109) English abbot. He was abbot of Crowland in Lincolnshire, England, an honour conferred on him by William of Normandy, whose secretary he had been. The Historia Monasterii Croylandensis/A History of...

Ingush
Member of a Caucasian-speaking people, closely related to the Chechens, who live in the northern Caucasus region of Russia. Their history since 1943 has been similar to that of the Chechens. ...

inheritance tax
In the UK, a tax charged on the value of an individual's estate on his or her death, including gifts made within the previous seven years. It replaced capital transfer tax in 1986 (which in turn...

initiative
In politics, a device whereby constitutional voters may play a direct part in making laws. A proposed law may be drawn up and signed by petitioners, and submitted to the legislature. A referendum...

injunction
Court order that forbids a person from doing something, or orders him or her to take certain action. Breach of an injunction is contempt of court. Injunctions are often needed urgently and may be...

ink
Coloured liquid used for writing, drawing, and printing. Traditional ink (blue, but later a permanent black) was produced from gallic acid and tannic acid, but inks are now based on synthetic dyes. ...

Inkatha Freedom Party
South African political party, representing the nationalist aspirations of the country's largest ethnic group, the Zulus. It was founded as a paramilitary organization in 1975 by its present leader,...

Inkerman, Battle of
In the Crimean War, British and French victory on 5 November 1854 over Russians attacking the Inkerman Ridge, which was occupied by the British army besieging Sevastopol. The British troops were...

Inkpaduta
(c. 1815-c. 1878) Santee Sioux chief. As chief of his band, he led them on a massacre of whites near Spirit Lake, Iowa, in March 1856. He was never caught, and his violent ways were instrumental in turning many...

INLA
Abbreviation for Irish National Liberation Army. ...

Inland Revenue
UK body responsible for the collection and administration of direct taxes, including income tax, corporation tax, capital gains tax, capital transfer tax, and estate and stamp duties. The Revenue...

inlay
Decorative technique used on furniture until replaced by marquetry in the 17th century. A pattern composed of differently coloured woods or other materials such as horn or ivory is inset into the...

innate idea
In philosophy, a concept prior to, and not derived from, experience. The term is traditional and was revived in the 20th century by certain linguists, notably the American Noam Chomsky, who holds...

Innes-Ker
Family name of the dukes of Roxburghe; seated at Floors Castle, Roxburghshire, Scotland. ...

Innes, James Dickson
(1887-1914) Welsh painter. His small landscapes in oil and watercolour are painted with a post-Impressionist sense of colour and design. He painted in South Wales, often in company with Augustus John, and...

Inness, George
(1825-1894) US landscape painter. He was influenced by the Hudson River School. His early works, such as The Delaware Valley (1865; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), are on a grand scale and show a concern...

Innocent III
(c. 1161-1216) Pope from 1198. He asserted papal power over secular princes, in particular over the succession of Holy Roman emperors. He also made King John of England his vassal, compelling him to accept Stephen...

Innocent IV
(died 1254) Pope 1243-54. Through the Council of Lyons (1245) he excommunicated and deposed the Emperor Frederick II, decreed the revival of the crusades and affirmed the authority of the popes in language...

Innocents' Day
Festival of the Roman Catholic Church, celebrated 28 December in memory of the Massacre of the Innocents, the children of Bethlehem who were allegedly slaughtered by King ...

Innocenzo da Imola
(c. 1490-c. 1545) Italian painter. Based in Bologna from 1517, he produced a series of religious frescoes and altarpieces, strongly influenced by the style of Raphael. He also trained other artists, including...

Inns of Court
Four private legal societies in London, England: Lincoln's Inn, Gray's Inn, Inner Temple, and Middle Temple. All barristers (advocates in the English legal system) must belong to one of the Inns of...

Inoue, Yasushi
(1907-1991) Japanese writer (fiction, travel essays, art history). His interest in China and central Asia is evident in many stories and historical novels. The novels feature isolated protagonists at dramatic...

Inouye, Daniel Ken
(1924) US Democrat politician, senator from Hawaii. From 1962 he represented Hawaii in the US senate on behalf of the Democratic Party. During the early 1970s, Inouye served on the Senate committee that...

inquest
Inquiry held by a coroner into an unexplained death. At an inquest, a coroner is assisted by a jury of between 7 and 11 people. Evidence is on oath, and medical and other witnesses may be summoned. ...

insider trading
Illegal use of privileged information in dealing on a stock exchange, for example, when a company takeover bid is imminent. Insider trading is in theory detected by the Securities and Exchange...

insolvency
Inability to pay debts when they fall due. A company is technically insolvent when its liabilities exceed its assets. Individuals who are insolvent may become bankrupt (see bankruptcy), while...

inspiration
Spiritual influence that allows a person to think, speak, or act in a way that transcends ordinary human abilities. It can refer to a wide variety of religious experiences, including the presence of...

Installation art
Type of modern art in which the artist uses, as part of the composition, the specific setting (such as walls, floor, lights, and fittings) along with various...

instalment credit
Form of hire purchase. ...

Institut de France
Institute established 1795, composed (since 1832) of the following five academies: Académie Française (see Academy, French), founded 1635; Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, founded...

Institute of Management
Central institution of professional management in the UK, established on government initiative in 1947. Originally the British Institute of Management, in 1958 it absorbed the Institute of...

Instrument of Government, the
English constitution of 1653-57 which established a Protectorate, with Oliver Cromwell at its head, assisted by a Council of State, and established a single-chamber parliament, consisting of 460...

Insubre
Member of a Gallic people who in the late 5th century BC crossed the Alps and settled in ...

insurance
Contract guaranteeing compensation to the payer of a premium against loss by fire, death, accident, and so on, which is known as assurance in the case of a fixed sum and insurance where the payment...

intaglio
Design cut into the surface of gems or seals by etching or engraving; an engraving technique. ...

intangible asset
Asset that does not exist physically and so cannot be touched or seen. Examples of intangibles include patents, copyright, brand names, and other intellectual property, as well as goodwill. ...

integration
Merger of two firms. Vertical integration occurs if the two firms are at different stages of the production process. Forward integration occurs when a firm takes over a company which buys its...

intelligence
In military and political affairs, information, often secretly or illegally obtained, about other countries. Counter-intelligence is information on the activities of hostile agents. Much...

intelligentsia
In 19th-century Russia, a section of the middle class, including lawyers, doctors, teachers, engineers, and some officers, who advocated the adoption of Western ideas as a cure for the country's...

intendant
Official appointed by the French crown under Louis XIV to administer a territorial département. Their powers were extensive but counteracted to some extent by other local officials. The term was...

intendencia
Administrative unit of colonial Spanish America set up during the reign (1759-88) of Charles III. The Bourbon monarchy desired closer supervision of the American population, and intendants were...