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Dictionary of Philosophy - Dagobert D. Runes Category: Language and Literature > Philosophy Date & country: 17/05/2009, UK Words: 2784

Ho
Co-existence, one of the proofs of agreement. See Mo che. -- W.T.C.

Hobbes, Thomas
(1588-1679) Considering knowledge empirical in origin and results, and philosophy inference of causes from effects and vice versa, regarded matter and motion as the least common denominators of all our percepts, and bodies and their movements as the only subject matter of philosophy. Consciousness in its sensitive and cognitive aspects is a jarring...

Hocking, William Ernest
(1873) Professor in the Department of Philosophy at Harvard. Has endeavored to blend idealism vvith pragmatism while making some concessions to realism, even is in current theory he strives for a reconciliation between laissez faire liberalism and collectivism through a midground found in the worth of the individual in a 'commotive union in the co...

Hodgson, Shadworth
(1852-1913) English writer who had no profession and who held no public office. He displayed throughout a long life a keen devotion to philosophy. He was among the founders of the Aristotelian Society and served as its president for fourteen years. His earlier work was reshaped in a monumental four volume treatise called The Metaphysic of Experien...

Holbach, Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d'
(1723-1789) One of the Encyclopedists (q.v.) and a prominent materialist. He is the probable author of Le systeme de la Nature, known as 'the Bible of Atheism.' -- R.B.W.

Holism
See Emergent Evolutionism.

Holy
(AS. halig) The symbolically universal value of things. That aspect of value which reflects the totality, or God. The totality of value. -- J.Z.F.

Hominism
(Lat. homo, Man) German term (proposed by Windelband) for pragmatic humanism or psychologism. -- W.L.

Homoeomeries
(Gr. homoiomere) In Aristotle's philosophy those bodies that are divisible into parts qualitatively identical with one another and with the whole, such as the metals and the tissues of living organisms; in distinction from bodies whose parts are qualitatively unlike one another and the whole, such as the head of an animal or the leaf of a plant. -...

Homogeneity
(Lat. homogeneitas) The condition of having similar parts; uniformity of composition; identity of kind. Hamilton's Law of, 'that however different any two concepts may be, they both are subordinate to some higher concept -- things most unlike must in some respects be like'. Employed by H. Spencer (1820-1903) to denote the absence of differentiatio...

Homotheism
(Lat. homo, man; Gr. theos, god) another name for anthropomorphism (q.v.) coined by Ernst Häekel.

Howison, George Holmes
(1834-1916) A teacher at the University of California. He regarded the tendency of monistic thinking as the most vicious in contemporary philosophy. Opposed absolute idealism or cosmic theism for its thoroughgoing monism because of its destruction of the implications of experience, its reduction to solipsism and its resolution into pantheism. His ...

Hsi ch'ang
Practicing the Eternal; i.e., 'seeing what is small,' 'preserving one's weakness,' 'employing the light,' and 'reverting to enlightenment to avoid disaster to life.' (Lao Tzu.) -- W.T.C.

Hsiang
(a) Phenomenon, (b) Form or image. (c) Secondary Modes (or Forms), namely, Major Yang, Minor Yang, Major Yin, and Minor Yin, which are engendered by the Two Primary Modes, Yin and Yang, products of the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi). (d) Hexagram, which, in the system of changes (i), is a symbol representing a phenomenon noted or perceived in nature, a...

Hsiao i
'The little unit' is the smallest that has nothing within itself. See Pien che. (Sophists.) -- H.H.

Hsiao jen
(a) The inferior man, the small man, the mean man, the vulgar man. The opposite of the superior man. See Chün tzu. (b) Common man; little man; uneducated man; particularly as distinguished from the ruling class and the literati. -- W.T.C.

Hsiao ku
Minor cause. See Ku.

Hsiao t'i
The senses which man shares with animals are 'the part of man which is small', making him not merely an inferior man, but a mere animal. Not man's nature, but his animal nature. (Mencius.) -- H.H.

Hsiao t'ung i
The little similarity-and-difference; a great similarity differs from a little similarity. See Pien che. (Sophists.) -- H.H.

Hsiao yao yu
The happy excursion, that is, roaming outside of the realm of matter, following nature, and drifting in the Infinite, resulting in transcendental bliss. (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.) -- W.T.C.

Hsiao
Filial piety; love of parents; serving and supporting one's parents in the best way. It is 'the standard of Heaven, the principle of Earth, and the basis for the conduct of Man,' 'the basis of morality and the root of culture.' 'It begins with serving one's parents, extends to the duties towards one's sovereign, and ends in the establishment of on...

Hsien
The Confucians and Mohists demand that people of 'superior moral character' should be rewarded and put in power, irrespective of their previous achievements; or 'better', someone above the normal level of human capacity, almost a sage. -- H.H.

Hsin chai
'Fasting of the mind' is a state of pure experience in which one has no intellectual knowledge, in which there is immediate presentation; the attainment of the mystical state of unity. (Chuang Tzu between 399 and 295 B.C.) -- H.H.

Hsin
Good faith, one of the Five Cardinal Confucian Virtues (wu ch'ang); honesty; sincerity; truthfulness; truth. (Confucianism.) 'Actualization of honesty (chung).' (Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1086.) See Chung. Belief; trust. Power, or the efficacy of the essence of Tao. (Lao Tzu.) -- W.T.C.

Hsin
Heart; mind. The original or intuitive mind of man which is good (Mencius). Human desires (the hsin of man as different from the hsin of the Confucian Moral Law or tao). The Mind which is identical with the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi). (Shao K'ang-chieh, 1011-1077.) One aspect of the Nature (hsing). 'When the Nature is viewed from its goodness, it ...

Hsing (erh) hsia
What is within the realm of corporeality. See Hsing (erh) shang.

Hsing (erh) shang
What is above corporeality, such as The Moral Law (tao), Reason (li), etc., the general principle of which is the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi), as contrasted with what is within the realm of corporeality, such as the vital force (ch'i), a material thing (ch'i), etc., the general principles of which are the active (yang) and passive (yin) cosmic force...

Hsing li hsueh
Philosophy of the Nature and Reason of man and things. See Li hsueh. -- W.T.C.

Hsing ming (chia)
The school which advocated government by law (which includes punishment, hsing) and insisted on the correspondence of names (ming) to reality, as represented by Shen Tzu (fourth century B.C.), Han Fei Tzu (d. 233 B.C.), etc. Another name for the Legalist School (fa chia). When hsing is interpreted in the sense of shape to which names must correspo...

Hsing
The nature of man and things, especially human nature, understood as 'what is inborn,' or 'what is created.' It is what is imparted by Heaven, whereas what is received by man and things is fate (ming). The original state of the nature is tranquil. In its aroused state, when it comes into contact with the external world, it becomes feelings (ch'ing...

Hsiu shen
Cultivating one's personal life, which involves investigation of things, extension of knowledge, sincerity of the will, and rectification of the heart, and which results in the harmony of family life, order in the state, and world peace. (Confucianism.) -- W.T.C.

Hsu wu
(a) Emptiness and non-existence referring to Tao which is so full and real that it appears to be empty and non-existent. 'It is in the empty and the non-existent where Tao is found.' (Huai-nan Tzu, d. 122 B.C.) (b) Absence of desire and egotism. (Taoism) -- W.T.C.

Hsu
(a) Emptiness, non-existence, a major characteristic of Tao. (b) Emptiness of mind in the sense of absolute peace and purity (Taoism), and also in the sense of 'not allowing what is already in the mind to disturb what is coming into the mind.' (Hsun Tzu, c 335-c 288 B.C.) -- W.T.C.

Hsuan chiao
The Doctrine of Mystery, another name for the Taoist religion. -- W.T.C.

Hsuan chieh
Emancipation, to let nature take its course, to be at home with pleasant situations and at ease with misfortune, and not to be affected by sorrow and joy. (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.) -- W.T.C.

Hsuan hsueh
The system of profound and mysterious doctrines, with special reference to Taoism from the third to the fifth centuries A.D. -- W.T.C.

Hsuan te
(Profound Virtue) 'The Way produces things but does not take possession of them. It does its work but does not take pride in it. It rules over things but does not dominate them. This is called Profound Virtue.' (Lao Tzu.) Profound Virtue and Mysterious Power, through the cultivation of one's original nature and the returning to the character of Ta...

Hsuan tsung
The Religion of Mystery, another name for the Taoist religion. -- W.T.C.

Hsuan
(a) Mysterious; profound; abstruse. (b) Another name for Tao, understood in the sense of 'Mystery of mysteries, the gate to all existence.' (Lao Tzu.) (c) The Supremely Profound Principle. See T'a hsuan. (d) The heavens. -- W.T.C.

Hsuen men
The School of Mystery, another name for the Taoist religion. -- W.T.C.

Hsun Tzu
(Hsun Ch'ing, Hsun Kuan, c. 335-286 B.C.) For thirty years travelled, offered his service to the various powerful feudal states, and succeeded in becoming a high officer of Ch'i and Ch'u. A great critic of all contemporary schools, he greatly developed Confucianism, became the greatest Confucian except Mencius. Both Han Fei, the outstanding Legali...

Hua
Change, whether natural or infra-natural, transformation, the culmination of the process of change (pien), change from non-ens to ens; sudden change. -- W.T.C.

Huang Lao
The teachings of the Yellow Emperor and Lao Tzu which emphasized the nourishing of one's original nature and which were very influential in the Han dynasty (206 B.C-220 A.D.). -- W.T.C.

Huang T'ien
August Heaven, identical with Shang Ti.

Hugo of St. Victor
(1096-1141) He was among the leading mystics and presented his summary of theological arguments in his contribution to the popular summa of the so-called summists in his 'Summa sententiarum.' -- L.E.D.

Human nature
The limited range of human possibilities. The human tendency toward, or the human capacity for, only those actions which are common in all societies despite their acquired cultural differences. See Primitivism. -- J.K.P.

Humanism
(Lat. humanus, human) Any view in which interest in human welfare is central. Renaissance revival of classical learning as opposed to merely ecclesiastical studies. An ethical and religious movement culminating in Auguste Comte's 'Worship of Humanity,' better known as Humanitarianism. Philosophical movement represented by F. C. S. Schiller in Eng...

Humanitarianism
(Lat. humanus, human) Any view in which interest in human values is central. Any moral or social program seeking to lessen suffering and increase welfare of human beings, often involving intense emotional devotion to social reform, sometimes extending to prevention of cruelty to animals. Philanthropy. Altruism. Worship of Humanity. Comtean doctri...

Hume, David
Born 1711, Edinburgh; died at Edinburgh, 1776. Author of A Treatise of Human Nature, Enquiry Concerning the Human Understanding, Enquiry Concerning the Passions, Enquiry Concerning Morals, Natural History of Religion, Dialogues on Natural Religion, History of England, and many essays on letters, economics, etc. Hume's intellectual heritage is divi...

Humour
(a) Jocose imagination; sympathetic wit. (b) Romantic irony, equivalent of the triumph of the creative power of the artist's soul over all content and all form (Hegel). -- L.V.

Hun mang
The Taoist conception of the Golden Age, in which there was in the beginning, in the time of the primeval chaos, a state of absolute harmony between man and his surroundings, a life as effortless and spontaneous as the passage of the seasons, the two cosmic principles of yin and yang worked together instead of in opposition. -- H.H.

Hun
(C.) The active, positive, or heavenly (yang) part of the soul, as contrasted with the passive, negative, or earthly (yin) part of the soul called p'o. Hun is the soul of man's vital force (ch'i) which is expressed in man's intelligence and power of breathing, whereas p'o is the spirit of man's physical nature which is expressed in bodily movement...

Hung fan
The Grand Norm. See Chiu ch'ou.

Husserl, Edmund
1859-1938. See Phenomenology. Main works of Husserl: Philosophie der Anthmetik, 1891; Logische Untersuchungen, 1900; Ideen z. e. reinen Phänomenologie u. Phenomologische Philos., 1913; Vorlesungen z. Phanom. d. inneren Bewusstseine, 1928; Formale u. transz. Logik, 1929; Meditations Cartesiennes Introd. a la Phenomenologie, 1931; Die Krisis de...

Hussism
The Reformatory views of John Hus (1370-1415). A popular agitator and finally martyr, Hus stood between Wycliffe and Luther in the line of continental Protestant Reformers. He rested authority upon Scripture and defied ecclesiastical bans. The Hussite wars (1419-1432) following his death epitomized the growing nationalism and desire for religious ...

Hutcheson, Francis
(1694-1746) A prominent Scottish philosopher. Born in Drumalig, Ulster, educated at Glasgow, died in Dublin. The influence of his doctrine of 'moral sense,' stressing inborn conscience, or 'moral feeling,' was very wide, he was also the original author of the phrase 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number,' utilized by J. Bentham (q.v.) fo...

Hyle
See Matter.

Hylomorphism
(also hylemoiphism. Gr. hyle, matter, and morphe, contour, form) A theory that all physical things are constituted of two internal principles: the one of which remains the same throughout all change and is the passive basis of continuity and identity in the physical world, called prime matter; the other of which is displaced, or removed from actua...

Hylons
This name (combining the Greek words hyle matter and on being) was given by Mitterer to the heterogeneous subatomic and subelemental particles of matter (electrons, neutrons, protons, positrons) which enter into the composition of the elements without being elements themselves. The natural elements represent distinct types or species of natural bo...

Hylosis
The material states concomitant with a psychosis. (Montague.) -- H.H.

Hylosystemism
A cosmological theory developed by Mitterer principally, which explains the constitution of the natural inorganic body as an atomary energy system. In opposition to hylomorphism which is considered inadequate in the field of nuclear physics, this system maintains that the atom of an element and the molecule of a compound are reallv composed of sub...

Hylotheism
(Gr. hyle matter, and theism q.v.). A synonym for either pantheism or materialism in that this doctrine identifies mattei and god, or has the one merge into the other. -- K.F.L

Hylozoism
(Gr. hyle, mattei -- zoe, life) The doctrine that life is a property of matter, that matter and life are inseparable, that life is derived from matter, or that matter has spiritual properties. The conception of nature as alive or animated, of reality as alive. The original substance as bearing within itself the cause of all motion and change. The ...

Hyperaesthesia
(Gr. hyper + aesthesis, sensation) Excessive sensitivity, either sensory or affective. -- L.W.

Hyperbole
(Gr. hyperbole, over-shooting, excess) In rhetoric, that figure of speech according to which expressions gain their effect through exaggeration. The representation of things as greater or less than they really are, not intended to be accepted literally. Aristotle relates, for example, that when the winner of a mule-race paid enough money to a poet...

Hypnosis
(Gr. hypnos, sleep) A trance-like state characterized by an exaggerated suggestibility and an alteration of the normal functions of memory, of personality and perhaps also of perception. The state is ordinarily induced by another person, but may also be self-induced and then the phenomenon is called auto-hypnosis. -- L.W.

Hypnotism
A general term used to designate hypnotic phenomena including the techniques for inducing hypnosis (see Hypnosis), the therapeutic uses of hypnotic suggestion, etc -- L.W.

Hypostasis
Literally the Greek word signifies that which stands under and serves as a support. In philosophy it means a singular substance, also called a supposite, suppositum, by the Scholastics, especially if the substance is a completely subsisting one, whether non-living or living, irrational or rational. However, a rational hypostasis has the same meani...

Hypothesis
In general, an assumption, a supposition, a conjecture, a postulate, a condition, an antecedent, a contingency, a possibility, a probability, a principle, a premiss, a ground or foundation, a tentative explanation, a probable cause, a theoretical situation, an academic question, a specific consideration, a conceded statement, a theory or view for...

Hypothetical dualism
In epistemology, the theory that the external world is known only by inference. Absolute dualism of mind and external world. Opposite of. presentational realism. -- J.K.F.

Hypothetical imperatives
Term due to Kant which designates all statements of the form, 'If you desire so and so, you must, should, or ought to do such and such ' In such cases the obligatoriness of the action enjoined depends on the presence in the agent of the desire mentioned. See Categorical imperative. -- W.K.F.

Hypothetical morality
In ethics, any moral imperative stated in hypothetical form. For instance, if thou dost not desire certain consequences, thou shalt not commit adultery. Kant's categorical imperative, stated in hypothetical form. See Hypothesis, Morality. -- J.K.F.

Hypothetical syllogism
See Logic, formal, § 2.

Hypothetical
sentence or proposition is the same as a conditional ( q.v.) sentence or proposition. -- A.C.

Hysteron proteron
(Gr. hysteron proteron) Literally, making the consequent an antecedent; inverting the logical order by explaining a thing in terms of something which presupposes it. -- G.R.M.

Ich
(Ger. I, myself, me, the ego (q.v.)) In the German idealistic movement from Kant through Schopenhauer, the Ich, the final, ultimate conscious subject, plays a central and dynamic role. Kant discredited the traditional Cartesian conception of a simple, undecomposable, substantial I, intuitively known. On his view, the Ich is not a substance, but th...

Icon
(Gr. eikon, image) Any sign which is like the thing it represents. -- A.C.B.

Iconoclasm
Religious struggle against images (8th and 9th centuries) and towards symbolic art. -- L.V.

Iconology
Studies in history of art concerned with the interpretation of the matter or subject treated by artists without consideration of their personalities. -- L.V.

Idanta
(Skr. 'this-ness') Thingness, the state of being a this, an object of knowledge. -- K.F.L.

Idea
(Gr. idea) This term has enjoyed historically a considerable diversity of usage. In pre-Platonic Greek: form, semblance, nature, fashion or mode, class or species. Plato (and Socrates): The Idea is a timeless essence or universal, a dynamic and creative archetype of existents. The Ideas comprise a hierarchy and an organic unity in the Good, and a...

Ideal of Reason
(Ger. Ideal der Vernunft) Kant: The idea of an all-comprehending reality, God, containing the determination of all finite existence. In the Cr. of Pure Reason Kant shows how and why the mind hypostatizes this Ideal, the source of 'transcendental illusion' (q.v.). He concluded that while the traditional proofs of God's existence were all fallacious...

Ideal Utilitarianism
See Utilitarianism.

Ideal
Pertaining to ideas (q.v.) Mental. Possessing the character of completely satisfying a desire or volition. A state of perfection with respect to a standard or goal of will or desire. A norm, perfect type, or goal, an object of desire or will, whether or not conceived as attainable. -- W.L.

Idealism
Any system or doctrine whose fundamental interpretative principle is ideal. Broadly, any theoretical or practical view emphasizing mind (soul, spirit, life) or what is characteristically of pre-eminent value or significance to it. Negatively, the alternative to Materialism. (Popular confusion arises from the fact that Idealism is related to either...

Ideality
Condition of being mental. -- W.L.

Idealization
In art, the process of generalizing and abstracting from specifically similar individuals, in order to depict the perfect type of which they are examples, the search for real character or structural form, to the neglect of external qualities and aspects. Also, any work of art in which such form or character is exhibited; i.e. any adequate expressi...

Ideas of Pure Reason
(Kant. Ger. Ideen der reinen Vernunft) Ideas, expounded and criticized in the 'Transcendental Dialectic' of the Cr. of Pure Reason, in which an absolute whole determines the parts in an aggregate or as series. For Kant there were three such Ideas: the soul, the world, and God. He maintained that these Ideas did not constitute 'objects', but claime...

Ideatum
Noun denoting the object of an idea or that which is represented in the mind by the idea. Also applied to really existing things outside the mind corresponding to the concepts in consciousness. -- J.J.R.

Identity, law of
Given by traditional logicians as 'A is A.' Because of the various possible meanings of the copula (q.v.) and the uncertainty as to the range of the variable A, this formulation is ambiguous. The traditional law is perhaps best identified with the theorem x = x, either of the functional calculus of first order with equality, or in the theory of ty...

Identity-philosophy
In general the term has been applied to any theory which failed to distinguish between spirit and matter, subject and object, regarding them as an undifferentiated unity; hence such a philosophy is a species of monism. In the history of philosophy it usually signifies the system which has been called Identitätsphilosophie by Friedrich Wilhelm...

Identity
(Lat. identicus, from identidem, repeatedly) In psychology: personal identity, or the continuous existence of the personality despite physiological and psychological changes. See Identity, law of -- J.K.F.

Ideo-motor Action
(Gr. eidos, idea + motus, motion) Bodily action directly induced by the prevalence of an idea in the mind and considered by W. James as the basis of volition. (See W. James, The Principles of Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 522 ff.) -- L.W.

Ideogenetic Theory
(Gr. eidos, idea + genesis, origin) Theory of Brentano (see Brentano, Franz) and other phenomenologists (see Phenomenology) which holds that judgment is an original act of consciousness directed towards presentations. The term is a translation of the German ideogenetische Urteile. -- L.W.

Ideological
Pertaining to the school of Condidillac and his French followers of the early 19th century. Pertaining to theories determined by cultural environment or non-rational interests. Idle, unrealistic, fanciful. -- W.L

Ideology
A term invented by Destutt de Tracy for the analysis of general ideas into the sensations from which he believed them to emanate. The study was advocated as a substitute for metaphysics. The term was used in a derogatory sense by Napoleon to denominate all philosophies whose influence was republican. In recent times the English equivalent has come...

Idio-psychological Ethics
Ethics based on the inner facts of conscience, as contrasted with hetero-psychological ethics, or ethics based on mental categories other than the conscience. Introduced as terms into ethics by J. Martineau (1805-1899) in 1885. -- J.K.F.

Idol
(Gr. eidolon, and Lat. idolum, image or likeness) Democritus (5th c. B.C.) tried to explain sense perception by means of the emission of little particles (eidola) from the sense object. This theory and the term, idolum, are known throughout the later middle ages, but in a pejorative sense, as indicating a sort of 'second-hand' knowledge. G. Bruno ...

Ignorance
(Lat. in, not + noscere, to become acquainted with) Partial or complete absence of knowledge. -- A.C.B.

Ignoratio elenchi
The fallacy of irrelevance, i.e., of proving a conclusion which is other than that required or which does not contradict the thesis which it was undertaken to refute. -- A.C.