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Dictionary of Philosophy - Dagobert D. Runes Category: Language and Literature > Philosophy Date & country: 17/05/2009, UK Words: 2784

Beneke, Friedrich Eduard
(1798-1854) A German thinker of Kantian tradition modified by empiricism; his doctrines exerted considerable influence upon the psychology and educational theory of the 19th century. Main works: Erfahrungseelenlehre, 1820; Physik d. Sitten, 1822; Metaphysik, 1822; Logik als Kunstlehre des Denkens, 1832; Lehrbuch d. Psych. als Naturwiss., 1833; Erz...

Benthamism
Name conventionally given to the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) who regarded the greatest happiness of the greatest number as the supreme ethical goal of human society and individual men. The morality of men's actions is determined experimentally by their utility, which means the power of an action to produce happiness. The moral qua...

Bergson, Henri
(1859-1941) As the most influential of modern temporalistic, anti-mechanistic and spiritualistic metaphysics, Bergson's writings (Les donnees immediates de l'experience, Matiere et Memoire, L'evolution creatrtce, Le rire, Introduction a la metaphysique, Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion, etc.) were aimed against the dogmatic and crud...

Berkeleianism
The idealistic system of philosophy of George Berkeley (1685-1753). He thought that the admission of an extramental world would lead to materialism and atheism. Hence he denied the existence of an independent world of bodies by teaching that their existence consists in perceptibility, esse is percipi. The cause of the ideas in our mind is not a ma...

Berkeley, George
(1685-1753) Pluralistic idealist, reflecting upon the spatial attributes of distance, size, and situation, possessed, according to Locke, by external objects in themselves apart from our perception of them, concluded that the discrepancy between the visual and the tactual aspects of these attributes robbed them of all objective validity and reduce...

Bernard of Chartres
(died c. 1130) Has been called the 'most perfect Platonist of his century'' by John of Salisbury (Metalogicus, IV, 35, PL 199, 938) but he is known only at second-hand now. He taught in the school of Chartres from 1114-1119 and was Chancellor of Chartres from 1119-1124. According to John of Salisbury, Bernard was an extreme realist in his theory o...

Best
The principle of the best of all possible worlds; according to Leibniz, the world which exists is the best possible because God's wisdom makes him know, his goodness makes him choose, and his power always makes him produce the best possible. See Optimism. -- J.M.

Bewusstsein Ueberhaupt
German expression meaning 'consciousness in general' that is, consciousness conceived as a real entity over and above individual conscious centers. See Consciousness. -- L.W.

Bhagavad Gita
(Skr. the song, gita, of the Blessed One) A famed philosophic epic poem, widely respected in India and elsewhere, representing Krishna embodied as a charioteer imparting to the King Arjuna, who is unwilling to fight his kinsmen in battle, comprehension of the mysteries of existence, clearly indicating the relationship between morality and absolute...

Bhakti
(Skr. division, share) Fervent, loving devotion to the object of contemplation or the divine being itself, the almost universally recognized feeling approach to the highest reality, in contrast to vidya (s.v.) or jnana (s.v.), sanctioned by Indian philosophy and productive of a voluminous literature in which the names of Ramamanda, Vallabha, Nanak...

Bhasya
(Skr. speaking) Commentary.

Bheda
(Skr. different, distinct) Non-identity, particularly in reference to any philosophy of dualism which recognizes the existence of two opposed principles or admits of a difference between the essentially human and the Absolute. -- K.F.L.

Bhedabheda
(Skr. 'different [yet] not different') A philosophy admitting the point of view of bheda (s.v.) as well as that of abheda (s.v.), depending on the mental and spiritual attainment of the person. -- K.F.L.

Bhuta
(Skr. become) The 'has-become', or the ultimate element or concrete thing as it has en oh ed from the abstract, metaphysical unity through a process of infinite particularization and limitation. -- K.F.L.

Bhutatathata
(Skr.) 'So-ness', the highest state conceivable by the Vijnana-vada (s.v.) in which there is a complete coincidentia oppositorum of beings and elements of knowledge; directly identified with the Adi-Buddha, or eternal Buddha, in Vajrayana Buddhism. -- K.F.L.

Biconditional
The sentential connective =, 'if and only if.' See Logic, formal, § 1. -- A.C.

Binomic forces
Extra-biological forces, which influence the direction and development of life. I.e. all physical, chemical and other environmental forces which affect living organisms in any way. The second law of thermo-dynamics seems to vitalists to be an exception to their view that the creative life-force evolves upwards. Nonetheless natural selection is inf...

Biometry
The scientific application of mathematical analysis to biological problems (also spoken of as 'mathematical biophysics' and 'mathematical biochemistry'). The journal Biometrtka was founded by Karl Pearson. -- W.M.M.

Blondel, Maurice
(1861-1939) A philosopher in the French 'spiritualistic' tradition of Maine de Biran and Boutroux, who in his essays L'action (1893), and Le Proces de l'Intelligence (1922), defended an activistic psychology and metaphysics. 'The Philosophy of Action' is a voluntaristic and idealistic philosophy which, as regards the relation of thought to action,...

Bodhisattva
(Skr.) 'Existence (sattva) in a state of wisdom (bodhi)', such as was attained by Gautama Buddha (s.v.); a Buddhist wise and holy man. -- K.F.L.

Body
Here taken in the sense of the material organized substance of man contrasted with the mind, soul or spirit, thus leading to the problem of the relation between body and mind, one of the most persistent problems of philosophy. Of course, any theory which identifies body and mind, or does not adequately distinguish the psychical from the physical, ...

Boehme, Jacob
(1575-1624) Of Gorlitz, was the son of poor parents, received little formal schooling, studied the Bible and the works of Pastor Valentine Weigel assiduously. He became noted as a mystic, theosophist, and in his own day was called the German Philosopher. He wrote in German but his early followers translated his works into Latin, hence it is diffic...

Boethius
(470-525) An influential commentator on Aristotle and Cicero, who, in his own thinking, reflected a strong influence of Neo-Platonism and Augustinianism. De Consolatione Philosophiae (Migne PL, 63-4, 69-70). -- R.B.W.

Bolzano, Bernard
(1781-1848) Austrian philosopher and mathematician. Professor of the philosophy of religion at Prague, 1805-1820, he was compelled to resign in the latter year because of his rationalistic tendencies in theology and afterwards held no academic position. His Wissenschaftslehre of 1837, while it is to be classed as a work on traditional logic, conta...

Bonaventure, St.
(1221 -1274) Was born at Bagnorea, near Viterbo, and his name originally was John of Fidanza. He joined the Franciscans in 1238, studied at the Univ. of Paris under Alexander of Hales, and took his licentiate in 1248. He taught theology in Paris for seven years and received his doctorate in 1257. In this year he was made Superior-General of his Or...

Boodin, John Elof
American philosopher born in Sweden in 1869 who emigrated in 1886 to the United States. Studied at the Universities of Colorado, Minnesota, Brown and especially Harvard under Royce with whom he kept a life-long friendship though he was opposed to his idealism. His works (Time and Reality, 1904 -- Truth and Reality, 1912 -- A Realistic Universe, 19...

Boolean algebra
See Logic, Formal, §7.

Bosanquet, Bernard
(1848-1923) Neo-Hegelian idealist, regards Reality as a single individual all-embracing, completely rational experience, combining universality and concreteness. It alone exists. All other particulars -- minds or things -- are only partially concrete, individual and real. The incidental, incomplete, dependent and only partially existent character ...

Bourgeoisie
(Fr.) In its strict sense in the theory of historical materialism (q.v.) the class of urban, commercial, banking, manufacturing and shipping entrepreneurs which, at the close of the middle ages was strong enough, by virtue of its command of developing technics, to challenge the economic power of the predominantly rural and agricultural (manorial) ...

Bowne, Borden Parker
(1847-1910) His influence was not merely confined to the theological world of his religious communion as a teacher of philosophy at Boston University. His philosophy was conspicuous for the combination of theism with an idealistic view which he termed 'Personalism' (q.v.). He mainly discussed issues of philosophy which had a bearing on religion, e...

Bradley, Francis Herbert
(1846-1924) Dialectician extraordinary of British philosophy, Bradley sought to purge contemporary thought of the extremely sensationalistic and utilitarian elements embodied in the tradition of empiricism. Though owing much to Hegel, he early repudiated the Hegelian system as such, and his own variety of Absolute Idealism bases itself upon no sch...

Brahma eva idam visvam
(Skr.) 'Brahman, indeed, is this world-all', famous passage of Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.11, foreshadowing the complete monism of Sankara's Vedanta (q.v.). -- K.F.L.

Brahma
(Skr.) The creator or creative principle of the universe, main figure of the Hindu trinity (see Trimurti). -- K.F.L.

Brahman, Brahma
(Skr.) The impersonal, pantheistic world-soul, the Absolute, union with which is the highest goal of the Upanishads (q.v.) and Vedic (q.v.) thinking in general. It is occasionally identified with atman (q.v.) or made the exclusive reality (cf. brahma eva idam visvam; sarvam khalv idam brahma), thus laying the foundation for a deep mystic as well a...

Brahmana
(Skr.) One of several Vedic (s.v.) dictums or treatises of a ritualistic and sacrificial character which prepared the way, sometimes over an Aranyaka (q-v.), for the Upanishads (q.v.) by incipient philosophic reflections. -- K.F.L.

Brahmanism
The predominant form of philosophical, theological, and ethical speculation of India, sponsored by the Brahman caste which traces its doctrines back to the Vedas (q.v.) and Upanishads (q.v.) without ever having attained uniformity in regard to the main doctrines. -- K.F.L.

Brahmasutras
(Skr.) An aphoristic compilation of Badarayana's, systematizing the philosophy of the Upanishads (q.v.). -- K.F.L.

Brain
According to Aristotle, it is a cooling organ of the body. Early in the history of philosophy, it was regarded as closely connected with consciousness and with activities of the soul. Descartes contended that mind-body relations are centered in the pineal gland located between the two hemispheres of the brain. Cabanis, a sensualistic materialist, ...

Brentano, Franz
(1838-1917) Who had originally been a Roman Catholic priest may be described as an unorthodox neo-scholastic. According to him the only three forms of psychic activity, representation, judgment and 'phenomena of love and hate', are just three modes of 'intentionality', i.e., of referring to an object intended. Judgments may be self-evident and the...

Broad, C.D.
(1887) As a realistic critical thinker Broad takes over from the sciences the methods that are fruitful there, classifies the various propositions used in all the sciences, and defines basic scientific concepts. In going beyond science, he seeks to reach a total view of the world by bringing in the facts and principles of aesthetic, religious, eth...

Bruno, Giordano
(1548-1600) A Dominican monk, eventually burned at the stake because of his opinions, he was converted from Christianity to a naturalistic and mystical pantheism by the Renaissance and particularly by the new Copernican astronomy. For him God and the universe were two names for one and the same Reality considered now as the creative essence of all...

Brunschvicg, Leon
(1869-) Professor of Philosophy at the Ecole Normale in Paris. Dismissed by the Nazis (1941). His philosophy is an idealistic synthesis of Spinoza, Kant and Schelling with special stress on the creative role of thought in cultural history as well as in sciences. Main works: Les etapes de la philosophie mathematique, 1913; L'experience humaine et l...

Buddhism
The multifarious forms, philosophic, religious, ethical and sociological, which the teachings of Gautama Buddha (q.v.) have produced. They centre around the main doctrine of the catvari arya-satyani(q.v.), the four noble truths, the last of which enables one in eight stages to reach nirvana (q.v.): Right views, right resolve, right speech, right c...

Bundle, Theory of Self
The conception of the self as a mere aggregate of mental states. The designation is an allusion to Hume's famous description of the self as: 'a bundle or collection of different perceptions which succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement.' (A Treatise on Human Nature, Part LV, § 6.)--L.W.

Buridan's Ass
The story of the ass, which died of hunger and thirst because incapable of deciding between water and food placed at equal distances from him, is employed to support the free-will doctrine. A man, it is argued, if confronted by a similar situation, would by the exercise of his free-will, be able to resolve the equilibrium of opposing motives. The ...

Caitanya
(Skr.) Consciousness, 'superconsciousness', a quality near the in-it-self aspect of the Absolute Spirit, and hence sometimes a synonym for it. -- K.F.L.

Calculus
The name calculus may be applied to any organized method of solving problems or drawing inferences by manipulation of symbols according to formal rules. Or an exact definition of a calculus may be provided by identifying it with a logistic system, (q.v.) satisfying the requirement of effectiveness. In mathematics, the word calculus has many specif...

Calkins, Mary Whiton
(1863-1930) Professor of Philosophy at Wellesley College with which institution she was associated from 1891. She advanced an objective idealism of the Roycean character, styling her views as absolutistic personalism. She endeavored to find psychological justification for her views in the gestalt theory. Her works were in both fields of her intere...

Calvinism
A term covering the current of theological thought dating back to John Calvin (1509-1564) whose famous Institutes embodies its historic principles. Generally speaking, Calvinistic thought is a system in which God is made the center of all that is and happens, God's will pervading human and cosmic events, and upon whom man is utterly and cheerfully...

Cambridge Platonists
A small group of 17th century Cambridge thinkers whose views represented a kind of revival of Platonism. Esp. Ralph Cudworth and Henry More. Remembered chiefly, perhaps, for holding that ethics rests on certain absolute and self-evident truths. -- W.K.F. Newton was influenced by Henry More, e.g. in viewing space as the sensorium of God. See Cudwor...

Cambridge School
A term loosely applied to English philosophers who have been influenced by the teachings of Professor G. E. Moore (mainly in unpublished lectures delivered at the Cambridge University, 1911-1939). In earlier years Moore stressed the need to accept the judgments of 'common sense' on such matters as the existence of other persons, of an 'external wo...

Campanella, Tommaso
(1568-1639) A Dominican monk in revolt against Aristotelianism, and influenced by the naturalism of Telesio, he arrived at philosophic conclusions in some ways prophetic of Descartes. Distrusting both the reports of the senses and the results of reasoning as indications of the nature of Reality, he found nothing trustworthy except the fact of his ...

Canon
(Gr. kanon, rule) A term reminiscent of the arts and crafts, sometimes applied, since Epicurus who replaced the ancient dialectics by a canonics (kanonike), to any norm or rule which the logical process obeys. Thus John Stuart Mill speaks of five experimental methods as being regulated by certain canons. Kant defined canon as the sum total of all ...

Capacity
Any ability, potentiality, power or talent possessed by anything, either to act or to suffer. It may be innate or acquired, dormant or active. The topic of capacity figures, in the main, in two branches of philosophy: (a) in metaphysics, as in Aristotle's discussion of potentiality and actuality, (b) in ethics, where an agent's capacities are usual...

Capitalism
A mode of economic production which is characterized by the fact that the instruments of production (land, factories, raw materials, etc.) are controlled to a greater or lesser extent by private individuals or groups. Since the control an individual can exercise over means of production is never absolute and as a matter of fact fluctuates widely w...

Capitalists
The economic class (q.v.) which owns means of production and hires people at wages to work them, thereby realizing profits. -- J.M.S.

Cardinal number
Two classes are equivalent if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between them (see One-one). Cardinal numbers are obtained by abstraction (q. v.) with respect to equivalence, so that two classes have the same cardinal number if and only if they are equivalent. This may be formulated more exactly, following Frege, by defining the cardinal num...

Cardinal Point and Value
Psychological terms having to do with relationship of stimulus to the intensity of sensation. The point at which the proportionate increase of both is in a direct relation. -- C.K.D.

Cardinal virtues
The cardinal virtues for a given culture are those which it regards as primary, the others being regarded either as derived from them or as relatively unimportant. Thus the Greeks had four, wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice, to which the Christians added three, faith, hope, and love or charity. -- W.K.S.

Carlyle, Thomas
: (1795-1881) Vigorous Scotch historian and essayist, apostle of work. He was a deep student of the German idealists and did much to bring them before English readers. His forceful style showed marked German characteristics. He was not in any sense a systematic philosopher but his keen mind gave wide influence to the ideas he advanced in ethics, po...

Carnap, Rudolf
(1891-) successively Privatdozent at the University of Vienna, Professor of Philosophy at the German University of Prague, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Chicago (since 1936); one of the leading representatives of the positivism of the Vienna Circle and subsequently of Scientific Empiricism (q.v.); co-editor of The Journal of Unified...

Carneades
(c. 215-125 B.C.) The most prominent head of the Middle Academy and opponent of the Stoics. His most noteworthy contribution to philosophy consisted in the doctrine of logical probabilism as a basis of scepticism. -- R.B.W.

Cartesianism
The philosophy of the French thinker, Rene Descartes (Cartesius) 1596-1650. After completing his formal education at the Jesuit College at La Fleche, he spent the years 1612-1621 in travel and military service. The reminder of his life was devoted to study and writing. He died in Sweden, where he had gone in 1649 to tutor Queen Christina. His prin...

Cassirer, Ernst
(1874-) Has been chiefly interested in developing the position of the neo-Kantian Philosophy of the Marburg School as it relates to scientific knowledge. Looking at the history of modern philosophy as a progressive formulation of this position, he has sought to extend it by detailed analyses of contemporary scientific developments. Of note are Cas...

Casualism
The doctrine that all things and events come to be by chance. E.g., the view of the Epicureans.

Casuistic
Adjective; pertaining to casuistry and casuists, or relating to case histories, especially cases of conduct. In a depreciative sense, sophistical and misleading. -- J.J.R.

Casuistry
Study of cases of conscience and a method of solving conflicts of obligations by applying general principles of ethics, religion, and moral theology to particular and concrete cases of human conduct. This frequently demands an extensive knowledge of natural law and equity, civil law, ecclesiastical precepts, and an exceptional skill in interpretin...

Catechetic
Noun ordinarily employed in the plural, denoting the method and practice of imparting religious instruction orally by means of questions and answers, especially to children. -- J.J.R.

Categorematic
In traditional 1ogic, denoting or capable of denoting a term, or of standing for a subject or predicate- -- said of words. Opposite of syncategorematic (q.v.). --A.C.

Categorial
A priori or non-empirical elements. (Alexander). -- H.H. (Ger. kategorial) In Husserl: Of or pertaining to the function or the result of ego-spontaneity as conffering logical form on substrates and producing syntactical objects. -- D.C.

Categorical (Judgment)
(Gr. kategorikos, affirmative, predicative) Aristotle: Affirmative explicit; direct. Commentators on Aristotle emphasized the opposition between categorical and conditional propositions, although Aristotle did not stress this connotation of the term. -- G.R.M. (In Kant) A judgment comprising two concepts related by a copula, typically an attribute...

Categorical Imperative
(Kant. Ger. kategorischer Imperativ) The supreme, absolute moral law of rational, self-determining beings. Distinguished from hypothetical or conditional imperatives which admit of exceptions. Kant formulated the categorical imperative as follows 'Act on maxims which can at the same time have for their object themselves as universal laws of nature...

Category of Unity
Kant: The first of three a priori, quantitative (so-called 'mathematical') categories (the others being 'plurality' and 'totality') from which is derived the synthetic principle, 'All intuitions (appearances) are extensive magnitudes.' By means of this principle Kant seeks to define the object of experience a priori with reference to its spatial f...

Category
(Gr. kategoria) In Aristotle's logic (1) the predicate of a proposition; (2) one of the ultimate modes of being that may be asserted in predication, viz.: substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, passion. -- G.R.M. (in Kant) Any of twelve forms or relating principles of the understanding, constituting necessary...

Catharsis
(Gr. katharsis) Purification; purgation; specifically the purging of the emotions of pity and fear effected by tragedy (Aristotle). -- G.R.M. In aesthetics: Purification of and liberation from passions in art (Aristotle). First idea of the distinction between form and sentiment. -- L.V.

Catvari arya-satyani
(Skr.) 'The four noble truths' of Gautama Buddha's (q.v.) teaching: Suffering exists; it has a cause; it may cease; there is a path leading to its cessation. -- K.F.L.

Causa sui
Cause of itself; necessary existence. Causa sui conveys both a negative and a positive meaning. Negatively, it signifies that which is from itself (a se), that which does not owe its being to something else; i.e., absolute independence of being, causelessness (God as uncaused). Positively, causa sui means that whose very nature or essence involves...

Causality
(Lat. causa) The relationship between a cause and its effect. This relationship has been defined as a relation between events, processes, or entities in the same time series, such that when one occurs, the other necessarily follows (sufficient condition), when the latter occurs, the former must have preceded (necessary condition), both condition...

Cause-theory (of mind, body)
The influence of mind upon body or body upon mind or both upon each other. This influence may be of any type, e.g., productive, directive, or a stimulus to activity. -- V.F.

Cause
(Lat. causa) Anything responsible for change, motion or action. In the history of philosophy numerous interpretations were given to the term. Aristotle distinguished among the material cause, or that out of which something arises, the formal cause, that is, the pattern or essence determining the creation of a thing, the efficient cause, or the fo...

Centre-theory
Ascribes the unity of the mind to a certain particular existent centre, 'which stands in a common asymmetrical relation to all the mental events' of a certain mind. (Broad). --H.H.

Certainty
(Lat. Certus, sure) The alleged indubitability of certain truths, especially of logic and mathematics. -- L.W.

Certitude
Consists in the firmness, by which the mind adheres to any proposition, whereas evidence, besides the firmness of adhesion, implies also the quietude (or satisfaction) of the intellect in the thing known either because from a comparison. If the terms we immediately know the relation between a subject and predicate, or because, immediately, with th...

Ch'an wei
Prognostics in 300 B.C.-400 A.D., a system represented by a group of prophetic writings called ch'an and a group of apocryphal 'complements' or 'woofs' to the Confucian classics, called wei, in an attempt to interpret the classics in terms of medieval Chinese theology, the theory of correspondence between man and the universe, and the Yin Yang phi...

Ch'ang sheng
(a) Everlasting existence, such as that of Heaven and Earth, because of their 'not existing for themselves.' (Lao Tzu). (b) Long life, as a result of the nourishment of the soul and rich accumulation of virtue. (Taoist philosophy), (c) Immortality, to be achieved through internal alchemy and external alchemy (lien tan). (Taoist religion). -- W.T.C...

Ch'ang
(a) 'Invariables' or universal and eternal laws or principles running through the phenomenal change of the universe. (Lao Tzu). (b) Constant virtues. See wu ch'ang. -- H.H.

Ch'eng ming
(a) To arrive at understanding from being one's true self. This is due to one's nature, whereas to arrive at being one's true self from understanding is a matter of culture. (Confucianism). (b) The knowledge that rises above distinctions, attainable only when the human mind, completely comprehends Heaven, nature and the moral law. (Chang Heng-Ch'u...

Ch'eng
Honesty; sincerity; absence of fault; actuality. Reverence; seriousness. Being one's true self; absolute true self; truth, in the sense of 'fulfillment of the self,' which 'is the beginning and end of material existence,' and 'without which there is no material existence.' 'Being true to oneself (or sincerity) is the law of Heaven. To try to be t...

Ch'i chia
Ordering one's home life by the practice of such virtues as filial piety, respect for one's elder brothers, and parental kindness or love, as a necessary condition for the ordering of national life. (Confucianism). -- W.T.C.

Ch'i hsueh
The intellectual movement in the state of Ch'i. See Chi Hsia.

Ch'i wu
The equality of things and opinions, the identity of contraries. 'Viewed from the standpoint of Tao, a beam and a pillar are identical. So are ugliness and beauty, greatness, wickedness, perverseness, and strangeness. Separation is the same as construction; construction is the same as destruction.' Therefore the sages harmonize the systems of righ...

Ch'i
A material thing, whatever is within the realm of matter; corporeality; whatever has form. (Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism.) -- W.T.C.

Ch'i
Breath; the vital fluid. Force; spirit. The vital force, as expressed in the operation and succession of the active principle (yang) and the passive principle (yin) and the Five Agents or Elements (wu hsing). To Chou Lien-hsi (1017-1073), this material principle is identical with yin yang and the Five Elements. To Chang Heng-ch'u (1020-1077) it i...

Ch'ien
Heaven, symbolized by = in the Eight Trigrams (pa kua); the trigram of the male cosmic principle, yang, opposite of k'un. --W.T.C.

Ch'in
Personal experience, or knowledge obtained through the contact of one's knowing faculty and the object to be known. (Neo-Mohists.) Parents. Kinship, as distinguished from the more remote relatives and strangers, such distinction being upheld by Confucians as essential to the social structure but severely attacked by the Mohists and Legalists as u...

Ch'ing (dynasty) philosophy
See li hsueh and Chinese philosophy. -- W.T.C

Ch'ing
Passions; feelings; emotions; interpreted as (a) Human nature (which is originally tranquil) when moved and awakened and expressed in the seven feelings (joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love, hatred, and desire), like and dislike, and the sense of advantage and disadvantage. (b) The impure side of man, born of the passive (yin) vital force (ch'i) as con...

Ch'iung li
Investigation of Reason of things to the utmost. A thing is considered by the Neo-Confucianists to be an event. A perfect understanding of an event can be obtained by investigating to the utmost the Reason underlying it. This does not require the investigation of the Reason of all things. When the Reason in one thing is extensively investigated, t...

Ch'uan hsing
Preservation of one's original nature. (Taoism.) -- W.T.C.

Ch'uan sheng
(a) Preservation of life, by the suppression of desires. (Taoism.) (b) Completeness of life, that is, 'all desires reach a proper harmony.' (Taoism.) -- W.T.C.