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Dictionary of Philosophy - Dagobert D. Runes Category: Language and Literature > Philosophy Date & country: 17/05/2009, UK Words: 2784

Level
A grade or type of existence or being which entails a special type of relatedness or of organization, with distinctive laws. The term has been used primarily in connection with theories of emergent evolution where certain so-called higher levels, e.g. life, or mind, are supposed to have emerged from the lower levels, e.g. matter, and are considere...

Levy-Bruhl, Lucien
(1857-1939) Professor of Philosophy at the Sorbonne 1899-1939, represents a sociological and anthropological approach to philosophy; his chief contribution is an anthropological study of primitive religion which emphasizes the 'prelogical' or mystical character of the thinking of primitive peoples. La Mentalite primitive (1922), Eng. trans., 1923;...

Lewis, Clarence Irving
(1883-) Professor of Philosophy at Harvard. In Logic, Lewis has originated and defended strict implication (q.v.) in contrast to material implication, urging that formal inference should be based on a relation which can be known to hold without knowing what is true or false of this particular universe. See his Survey of Symbolic Logic, and his and...

Li hsueh
The Rational Philosophy or the Reason School of the Sung dynasty (960-1279) which insisted on Reason or Law (li) as the basis of reality, including such philosophers as Chou Lien-hsi (1017-1073), Shao K'ang-chieh (1011-1077), Chang Heng-ch'u (1020-1077), Ch'eng I-ch'uan (1033-1107), Ch'eng Ming-tao (1032-1086), Chu Hsi (1130-1200), and Lu Hsiang-s...

Li
(a) Profit, the principle of gain in contrast with the principle of righteousness (i). (Mencius, etc.) (b) Benefit, 'that which, when obtained, gives pleasure,' or the largest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people, as a result of Universal Love (chien ai). Righteousness, loyalty, filial piety, and accomplishment are forms of li. (M...

Li
Propriety; code of proper conduct; rules of social contact; good manners; etiquett; mores; rituals; rites; ceremonials. In Confucius, it aims at true manhood (jen) through self-mastery, and central harmony (ho). 'Propriety regulates and refines human feelings, giving them due allowance, so as to keep the people within bounds.' It is 'to determine ...

Li
Reason; Law; the Rational Principle. This is the basic concept of modern Chinese philosophy. To the Neo-Confucians, especially Ch'eng I-ch'uan (1033-1107), Ch'eng Ming-tao (1032-1086) and Chu Hsi (1130-1200), Reason is the rational principle of existence whereas the vital force (ch'i) is the material principle. All things have the same Reason in t...

Libertarianism
(Lat. libertas, freedom) Theory of the freedom of the will. See Free-Will. -- L.W.

Liberty
(in Scholasticism) Of exercise: Is the same as liberty of contradiction: a potentiality for either one of two contradictories, as to do good or not to do good, to act or not to act. Of specification; is the same as liberty of contrariety: a potentiality for either one of two contraries, as to do good or to do evil. -- H.G.

Liberum Arbitrium
The freedom of indifference (liberum arbitrium indifferentiae) is the ability of the will to choose independently of antecedent determination. See Free-Will. -- L.W.

Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph
(1742-1799) Influential German satirist. Made discoveries in physics. He leaned towards theoretical materialism, and yet had a strong religious (Spinozistic) element. -- H.H. Main works: Briefe aus England, 1776-8; editor of Göttingisches Mag. d. Literatur u. Wissensch., 1780-2; Ausführlkhe Erklärung d. Hogarthschen Kupferstiche, 17...

Lieh Tzu
Nothing is known of Lieh Tzu (Lieh Yu-k'ou, c. 450-375 B.C.) except that he was a Taoist. The book Lieh Tzu (partial Eng. tr. by L. Giles: Taoist Teachings from the Book of Lieh Tzu) which bears his name is a work of the third century A.D. -- W.T.C.

Limit
We give here only some of the most elementary mathematical senses of this word, in connection with real numbers. (Refer to the articles Number and Continuity.) The limit of an infinite sequence of real numbers a₁, a₂, a₃, . . . is said to be (the real number) b if for every posit...

Limitative
Tending to restrict; pertaining to the limit-value. In logic, an affirmative infinitated judgment, often employed as a third quality added to affirmative and negative. More specifically used by Kant to denote judgments of the type, 'Every A is a not-B', and since Kant, applied to the judgments known to the older logicians as indefinite. -- J.K.F.

Limiting Notion
The notion of the extreme applicability of an universal principle considered as a limit. Employed by Kant (1724-1804) in his Kritik der Reinen Vernunft, A 255, to indicate the theory that experience cannot attain to the noumenon. -- J.K.F.

Limits of Sensation
The two limiting sensations in the sensory continuum of any given sense: (a) the lower limit is the just noticeable sensation which if the stimulus producing it were diminished, would vanish altogether or -- in the view of some psychologists -- would pass into the unconscious. See Threshold of Consciousness, (b) The upper limit is the maximum sens...

Line of Beauty
Title given by Wm. Hogarth to an undulating line supposedly containing the essence of the graphically beautiful, and so regarded as both the cause and the criterion of beauty; particular lines and paintings become beautiful as and because they exhibit this line. According to Hogarth, such lines must express 'symmetry, variety, uniformity, simplici...

Lipps, Theodor
(1851-1914) Eminent German philosopher and psychologist. The study of optical illusions led him to his theory of empathy. Starts with the presupposition that every aesthetic object represents a living being, and calls the psychic state which we experience when we project ourselves into the life of such an object, an empathy (Einfühlung) or 'f...

Localization, Cerebral
(Lat. locus, place) The supposed correlation of mental processes, sensory and motor, with definite areas of the brain. The theory of definite and exact brain localization has been largely disproven by recent physiological investigations of Franz, Lashley and others. -- L.W.

Locke, John
(1632-1714) The first great British empiricist, denied the existence of innate ideas, categories, and moral principles. The mind at birth is a tabula rasa. Its whole content is derived from sense-experience, and constructed by reflection upon sensible data. Reflection is effected through memory and its attendant activities of contemplation, distin...

Logic, formal
Investigates the structure of propositions and of deductive reasoning by a method which abstracts from the content of propositions which come under consideration and deals only with their logical form. The distinction between form and content can be made definite with the aid of a particular language or symbolism in which propositions are expresse...

Logic, symbolic
, or mathematical logic, or logistic, is the name given to the treatment of formal logic by means of a formalized logical language or calculus whose purpose is to avoid the ambiguities and logical inadequacy of ordinary language. It is best characterized, not as a separate subject, but as a new and powerful method in formal logic. Foreshadowed by i...

Logic, traditional
the name given to those parts and that method of treatment of formal logic which have come down substantially unchanged from classical and medieval times. Traditional logic emphasizes the analysis of propositions into subject and predicate and the associated classification into the four forms, A, E, I, O; and it is concerned chiefly with topics im...

Logical Empiricism
See Scientific Empiricism I.

Logical machines
Mechanical devices or instruments designed to effect combinations of propositions, or premisses, with which the mechanism is supplied, and derive from them correct logical conclusions. Both premisses and conclusions may be expressed by means of conventional symbols. A contrivance devised by William Stanley Jevons in 1869 was a species of logical a...

Logical meaning
See meaning, kinds of, 3.

Logical truth
See Meaning, kinds of, 3; and Truth, semantical.

Logistic system
The formal construction of a logistic system requires: a list of primitive symbols (these are usually taken as marks but may also be sounds or other things -- they must be capable of instances which are, recognizably, the same or different symbols, and capable of utterance in which instances of them arc put forth or arranged in an order one after...

Logistic
The old use of the word logistic to mean the art of calculation, or common arithmetic, is now nearly obsolete. In Seventeenth Century English the corresponding adjective was also sometimes used to mean simply logical. Leibniz occasionally employed logistica (as also logica mathematica) as one of various alternative names for his calculus ratiocina...

Logomachy
(Gr. logos, word + mache, battle) A contention in which words are involved without their references. A contention which lacks the real grounds of difference, or one in which allegedly opposed views are actually not on the same level of discourse. A battle of words alone, which ignores their symbolic character. -- J. K. F.

Logos
(Gr. logos) A term denoting either reason or one of the expressions of reason or order in words or things; such as word, discourse, definition, formula, principle, mathematical ratio. In its most important sense in philosophy it refers to a cosmic reason which gives order and intelligibility to the world. In this sense the doctrine first appears i...

Lotze, Rudolph Hermann
(1817-1881) Empiricist in science, teleological idealist in philosophy, theist in religion, poet and artist at heart, Lotze conceded three spheres; Necessary truths, facts, and values. Mechanism holds sway in the field of natural science; it does not generate meaning but is subordinated to value and reason which evolved a specific plan for the wor...

Love
(in Max Scheler) Giving one's self to a 'total being' (Gesamtwesen); it therefore discloses the essence of that being; for this reason love is, for Scheler, an aspect of phenomonelogical knowledge. -- P. A. S.

Lovejoy, Arthur O.
(1873-) Emeritus Professor of Philosophy of Johns Hopkins University. He was one of the contributors to 'Critical Realism.' He wrote the famous article on the thirteen pragmatisms (Jour. Philos. Jan. 16, 1908). Also critical of the behavioristic approach. His best known works are The Revolt against Dualism and his recent, The Great Chain of Being,...

Lu Hsiang-shan
(Lu Chiu-yiian, Lu Tzu-ching, 1139-1192) Questioned Ch'eng I-ch'uan's interpretation of Confucianism when very young, later often argued with Chu Hsi, and claimed that 'the six (Confucian) classics are my footnotes.' This official-scholar served as transition from the Reason School (li hsueh) of Neo-Confucianism to the Mind School (hsin hsueh) of ...

Lucretius, Carus
(98-54 B.C.) Noted Roman poet, author of the famous didactic poem De Natura Rerum, in six books, which forms an interesting exposition of the philosophy of Epicureanism. -- M..F.

Lullic art
The Ars Magna or Generalis of Raymond Lully (1235-1315), a science of the highest and most general principles, even above metaphysics and logic, in which the basic postulates of all the sciences are included, and from which he hoped to derive these fundamental assumptions with the aid of an ingenious mechanical contrivance, a sort of logical or th...

Lumen naturale
Natural light, equivalent to lumen naturalis rationis, in medieval philosophy and theology denoted the ordinary cognitive powers of human reason unaided by the supernatural light of grace, lumen gratiae, or divine revelation, lumen fidei. -- J.J.R. The phrase 'natural light of reason' occurs also in the scientific writings of Galileo (q.v.) and De...

Lutheranism
An ecclesiastical school of thought claiming Martin Luther (1483-1546) as its source and inspiration. See Reformation. The Protestant doctrine of salvation by faith, the free grace of God, wholly without earned merit and institutional sanctions, is emphasized. The essence of the church-community is held to revolve about the pure, revealed Word of ...

Lyric
a. Literary genre pertaining to the absolute uniqueness of poets' sensations, b. Identified with art in general because it symbolizes expression of sentiment (Croce). -- L.V.

Machiavellism
A political principle according to which every act of the state (or statesman) is permissible -- especially with reference to foreign relations -- which might be advantageous for one's own country. The word refers to Niccolo di Bernardo Machiavelli, born May 3, 1469 in Florence, died June 22, 1527. Author of Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Li...

Macrocosm
(vs. Microcosm) The universe as contrasted with some small part of it which epitomizes it in some respect under consideration or exhibits an analogous structure; any large 'world' or complex or existent as contrasted with a miniature or small analogue of it, whether it be the physical expanse of the universe as against an atom, the whole of human ...

Madhva
An Indian dualistic philosopher of the 13th century A.D., a Vedantist and Vishnuite who held that world and soul, as well as the highest reality are entities different in their essence, and non-commutable. -- K.F.L.

Madhyamaka
Another name for the Buddhist school of Sunyavada (s.v.), so-called because it assumes a middle path (madhyama) between theories clinging to the knowableness of the noumenal and the sufficiency of the phenomenal. -- K.F.L.

Maecenatism
Patronage of the arts (from Maecenas, the patron of Horace and Virgil). -- L.V.

Mahabharata
(Skr. 'the great [war of the] Bharatas'). An Indian epic of 100,000 verses, ascribed to Vyasa, incorporating many philosophical portions, such as the Bhagavad Gita (q.v.) -- K.F.L.

Mahabhuta
(Skr.) A physical element; in the Sarikhya (q.v.) one of the five gross elements contrasted with the tanmatras (q.v.). -- K.F.L.

Mahat
(Skr. great, mighty) The first great principle produced by prakrti (q.v.) according to the Sarikhya (q.v.), ideation, spirit, Idea. -- K.F.L

Mahatma, mahatman
(Skr. great soul) Term of respect, as applied to Gandhi, for instance. In philosophy, the super-individual or transcendental self, or the Absolute. -- K.F.L.

Mahayana Buddhism
'Great Vehicle Buddhism', the Northern, Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese form of Buddhism (q.v.), extending as far as Korea and Japan, whose central theme is that Buddhahood means devotion to the salvation of others and thus manifests itself in the worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas (q.v.). Apart from absorbing beliefs of a more primitive strain, it...

Maieutic
Adjective derived from the Greek maia, midwife; hence pertaining to the art of assisting at childbirth, and to the positive aspect of the Socratic method. Socrates pretended to be a midwife, like his mother, since he assisted at the birth of knowledge by eliciting correct concepts by his process of interrogation and examination. -- J.J.R.

Maimon, Moses ben
(better known as Maimonides) (Abu Imram Musa Ibn Maimun Ibn Abdallah) (1135-1204) Talmud commentator and leading Jewish philosopher during the Middle Ages. Born in Cordova, left Spain and migrated to Palestine in 1165 and ultimately 1160, settled in Fez, N. Africa, whence he settled in Fostat, Egypt. His Guide for the Perplexed (More Nebukim in He...

Maimon, Salomon
(1754-1800) A Jewish philosophical writer, versed in rabbinical literature, in whom Kant found his acknowledged most astute critical opponent. He wrote historical works on philosophy, attempted to expound a system of symbolic logic, and originated a speculative monism which influenced the leading Post-Kantians. -- H.H. Works: Versuch einer Transze...

Maine de Biran, F. P. Gonthier
(1766-1824) French philosopher and psychologist, who revolted against the dominant sensationalistic and materialistic psychology of Condlllac and Cabanis and developed, under the influence of Kant and Fichte, an idealistic and voluntaristic psychology. The mind directly experiences the activity of its will and at the same time the resistance offer...

Major premiss
See figure (syllogistic).

Major term
(Gr. meizon horos) That one of the three terms in a syllogism which appears as predicate of the conclusion; so called by Aristotle because in the first, or perfect, figure of the syllogism it is commonly the term of greatest extension, the middle term being included in it, and the minor term in turn coming under the middle term. See Aristotelianis...

Malebranche. Nicolas
(1638-1715) Was bom in Paris and, on his maturity, embraced the doctrines of the Cartesian school. Like Geulincx, he was particularly interested in the problem of mind-body relation which he interpreted in the spirit of occasionalism. Believing that the mind and body cannot possibly interact, he concluded that God enacts bodily movements 'on occas...

Malevolence
Ill or evil will or disposition -- the will or disposition to do wrong or to harm others. The vice opposed to the virtue of benevolence or good will. -- W.K.F.

Mana
An impersonal power or force believed to reside in natural objects contact with which infixes benefits of power, success, good or evil. A belief held by the Melanesians. -- V.F

Manas
(Skr.) Mind, mentality, the unifying principle involved in sensation (cf. indriya), perception, conation, conception, always thought of in Indian philosophy as a kinetic entity, will and desire being equally present with thinking. -- K.F.L.

Manicheism
, a religio-philosophical doctrine which spread from Persia to the West and was influential during the 3rd and 7th century, was instituted by Mani (Grk. Manes, Latinized: Manichaeus), a Magian who, upon conversion to Christianity, sought to synthesize the latter with the dualism of Zoroastrianism (q.v.), not without becoming a martyr to his faith. ...

Manifold of Sense
(A.S. manig, many + feold, fold) The sensuous ingredients of experience (colors, sounds, etc.) considered as a multiplicity of discrete items. See I. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A. 77-9-B. 102-5. -- L.W.

Mantra
(Skr.) Pious thought couched in repeated prayerful utterances, for meditation or charm. Also the poetic portion of the Veda (q.v.). In Shaktism (q.v.) and elsewhere the holy syllables to which as manifestations of the eternal word or sound (cf. iabda, vac, aksara) is ascribed great mystic significance and power. -- K.F.L.

Many questions
The name given to the fallacy -- or, rather, misleading device of disputation -- which consists in requiring a single answer to a question which either involves several questions that ought to be answered separately or contains an implicit assertion to which any unqualified answer would give assent. -- A. C.

Many-valued logic
See propositional calculus, many-valued.

Marburg School
Founded by Herman Cohen (1842-1918) and Paul Natorp (1854-1924) and supported by Ernst Cassirer (1874-), the noteworthy historian of philosophy, and Rudolf Stammler (1856-1938), the eminent legal philosopher, the school revived a specialized tendency of critical idealism. Stress is laid on the a priori, non-empirical, non-psychological and purely ...

Marcus Aurelius
(121-180 A.D.) The Roman Emperor who as a Stoic endowed chairs in Athens for the four great philosophical schools of the Academy, the Lyceum, The Garden and the Stoa. Aurelius' Stoicism, tempered by his friend Fronto's humanism, held to a rational world-order and providence as well as to a notion of probable truth rather than of the Stoic infallib...

Marx, Karl
Was born May 5, 1818 in Trier (Treves), Germany, and was educated at the Universities of Bonn and Berlin. He received the doctorate in philosophy at Berlin in 1841, writing on The Difference between the Democritean and Epicurean Natural Philosophy, which theme he treated from the Hegelian point of view. Marx early became a Left Hegelian, then a Fe...

Marxism
The philosophical, social and economic theories developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A concise statement of the general Marxist position is to be found in the Communist Manifesto. The philosophical aspect of Marxism is known as dialectical materialism (q.v.); in epistemology it adopts empiricism; in axiology, an interest theory of value st...

Material a priori
(in Max Scheler) Intuitively given essences (relation of ideas). -- P.A.S.

Material Mode of Speech
A description introduced by Carnap and based upon his distinction between 'object-sentences' and 'syntactical sentences'. A sentence is syntactical if it can be translated into (is materially equivalent to) another sentence of the same language which refers only to signs or formal properties of and relations between signs. All non-syntactical sent...

Materialism
A proposition about the existent or the real: that only matter (q.v.) is existent or real; that matter is the primordial or fundamental constituent of the universe; atomism; that only sensible entities, processes, or content are existent or real; that the universe is not governed by intelligence, purpose, or final causes; that everything is stric...

Materialization
(in Scholasticism) The function of matter when it receives form and with it constitutes a body, as distinguished from information, which is the function of form when it perfects the matter united to it so as to constitute a specific body. -- H.G

Materially
(in Scholasticism) A predicate is said to belong to a subject materially when it belongs to it by reason of its matter or subject -- but formally when it belongs to it by reason of its form, e.g. fire is materially wasteful or destructive, but formally warm. -- H.G.

Mathematics
The traditional definition of mathematics as 'the science of quantity' or 'the science of discrete and continuous magnitude' is today inadequate, in that modern mathematics, while clearly in some sense a single connected whole, includes many branches which do not come under this head. Contemporary accounts of the nature of mathematics tend to char...

Mathesis universalis
Universal mathematics. One major part of Leibniz's program for logic was the development of a universal mathematics or universal calculus for manipulating, i.e. performing deductions in, the universal language (characteristica universalis). This universal language, he thought, could be constructed on the basis of a relatively few simple terms and,...

Matrix method
Synonymous with truth-table method, q.v. -- A.C.

Matrix
See Logic, formal, § 3.

Matter, prime
(Scholastic) Though the notion of prime matter or hyle is not unknown to the Schoolmen previous to the 13th century, a consistent philosophical view has been developed only after the revival of Aristotelian philosophy. In accordance with the Stagirite, Aquinas considers prime matter as pure potentiality, lacking all positive characteristics. Matte...

Matter
That the defining characteristic of which is extension, occupancy of space, mass, weight, motion, movability, inertia, resistance, impenetrability, attraction and repulsion, or their combinations; these characteristics or powers themselves; the extra-mental cause of sense experience; what composes the 'sensible world'; the manipulate; the permane...

Maxim, ethical
In general any rule of conduct which an individual may adopt, or which he may be advised to follow as a good guide for action, e.g., Descartes' maxim to try always to conquer himself rather than fortune. The formulation of such rules is often recommended as a help in deciding what to do in particular cases, especially if time is short, in resistin...

Maya
(Skr.) The power of obscuring or state producing error and illusion; the 'veil' covering reality, the experience of manifoldness when only the One is real; natura naturans; appearance or phenomenon, as opposed to reality and noumenon. A condition generally acknowledged in Indian philosophy and popular Hindu thinking due to the ascendency of the Ve...

McDougall, William
(1871-1938) Formerly of Oxford and later of Harvard and Duke Universities, was the leading exponent of purposive or 'hormic' (from Gr. horme, impulse) psychology. 'Purposive psychology . . . asserts that active striving towards a goal is a fundamental category of psychology, and is a process of a type that cannot be mechanistically explained or re...

Mead, George Herbert
(1863-1931) Professor of Philosophy at Chicago University. One of the leading figures in the Deweyan tradition. He contributed an important article to the volume, Creative Intelligence. He emphasized the relationship between the individual and his formulation and testing of hypotheses, on the one hand, as against the organic relationship of the in...

Mean, Doctrine of the
In Aristotle's ethics, the doctrine that each of the moral virtues is an intermediate state between extremes of excess and defect. -- O.R.M.

Mean
In general, that which in some way mediates or occupies a middle position among various things or between two extremes. Hence (especially in the plural) that through which an end is attained; in mathematics the word is used for any one of various notions of average; in ethics it represents moderation, temperance, prudence, the middle way. In math...

Meaning, Kinds of
In semiotic (q. v.) several kinds of meaning, i.e. of the function of an expression in language and the content it conveys, are distinguished. An expression (sentence) has cognitive (or theoretical, assertive) meaning, if it asserts something and hence is either true or false. In this case, it is called a cognitive sentence or (cognitive, genuine...

Meaning
A highly ambiguous term, with at least four pivotal senses, involving intention or purpose, designation or reference, definition or translation, causal antecedents or consequences. Each of these provides overlapping families of cases generated by some or all of the following types of systematic ambiguity: -- Arising from a contrast between the s...

Measurement
(Lat. metiri, to measure) The process of ascribing a numerical value to an object or quality either on the basis of the number of times some given unit quantity is contained in it, or on the basis of its position in a series of greater and lesser quantities of like kind. See Intensive, Extensive Quantity. -- A.C.B.

Mechanics
The science of motion, affording theoretical description by means of specification of position of particles bound by relations to other particles, usually having no extension but possessing mass. This involves space and time and frames of reference (in a relative fashion). Particles are assumed to traverse continuous paths. Auxiliary kinematical c...

Mechanism
(Gr. mechane, machine) Theory that all phenomena are totally explicable on mechanical principles. The view that all phenomena is the result of matter in motion and can be explained by its law. Theory of total explanation by efficient, as opposed to final, cause (q.v.). Doctrine that nature, like a machine, is a whole whose single function is serve...

Mediation
(Lat. mediatio) The act or condition in which an intermediary is supplied between heterogeneous terms. (a) In philosophy: Mediation is necessary in systems in which two forms of reality are held to be so different that immediate interaction is impossible; this is the case in later Neo-PIatonism, and particularly in the Cartesiam'sm of Malebranche,...

Meinong, Alexius
(1853-1921) Was originally a disciple of Brentano, who however emphatically rejected many of Meinong's later contentions. He claimed to have discovered a new a priori science, the 'theory of objects' (to be distinguished from metaphysics which is an empirical science concerning reality, but was never worked out by Meinong). Anything 'intended' by ...

Meliorism
(Lat. melior, better) View that the world is neither completely evil nor completely good, but that the relative amounts of good and evil are changeable, that good is capable of increase. Human effort to improve the world can be effective in making the world better and probably the trend of biological and social evolution tends in that direction. O...

Melissus
(c. 450 B.C.) Of Samos. He advanced a positive proof of the Eleatic doctrine of being as one and eternal, motionless and without change. The senses deceive us. He wrote in the Ionic dialect. -- L.E.D.

Memory
(Lat. memoria) Non-inferential knowledge of past perceptual objects (perceptual memory) or of past emotions, feelings and states of consciousness of the remembering subject (introspective memory). See Introspection. Memory is psychologically analyzable into three functions: revival or reproduction of the memory image, recognition of the image as ...

Mencius
(Meng Tzu, Meng K'o, 371-289 B.C.) A native of Tsao (in present Shantung), studied under pupils of Tzu Ssu, grandson of Confucius, became the greatest Confucian in Chinese history. He vigorously attacked the 'pervasive teachings' of Yang Chu and Mo Tzu. Like Confucius, he travelled for many years, to many states, trying to persuade kings and princ...

Mental Chemistry
Psychological procedure, analogous to chemical analysis and synthesis, consisting in the attempted explanation of mental states as the products of the combination and fusion of psychic elements. See Associationism. -- L.W.

Mental tests
Measurement of independent variables in a person to specific situations controlled by the medium of the instrument, expressing measurable differences in individuals. Chief form: intelligence test. -- J.E.B.

Mental
(Lat. mens, mind) Pertaining to the mind either in its functional aspect (perceiving, imagining, remembering, feeling, willing, etc.) or in its contential aspects (sense data, images and other contents existing 'in' the mind). See Mind. -- L.W.