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The History Channel - Encyclopedia Category: History and Culture > History Date & country: 02/12/2007, UK Words: 25833

Clouet
French portrait painters and draughtsmen of the 16th century, father and son. The father, Jean (or Janet) (c. 1485-1541), is assumed to have been of Flemish origin. He became painter and valet de...

Clough, Arthur Hugh
(1819-1861) English poet. Much of his work is marked by a melancholy scepticism that reflects his struggle with his religious doubt. The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich (1848) is a witty and entertaining poem in...

Clovio, Giulio
(1498-1578) Croatian-born painter. He worked in Italy, establishing a reputation as one of the leading miniaturists of his day. His works include illustrations of the victories of Emperor Charles V (British...

Clovis
(465-511) Merovingian king of the Franks (481-511), who extended his realm from a small area around Tournai to encompass most of modern France and parts of modern Germany. He succeeded his father Childeric...

Clovis II
(633-656) King of Neustria and Burgundy from 638. He had the usurping king of Austrasia assassinated in 656, annexed his dominions, and became king of the whole Frankish empire. He succeeded his father,...

Clowes, Daniel
(1961) US comic-book artist and writer. His graphic novel series Eightball (1989-96) was dark, satirical, and multi-thematic, and included Ghost World, which he adapted into a screenplay for the...

Cluniac order
Christian religious order established 910 by William of Aquitaine at the monastic foundation at Cluny, France, as a revival movement based on the Benedictine order. Its reforms extended to other...

Clunies-Ross
Family that established a benevolently paternal rule in the Cocos Islands. John Clunies-Ross, a Scottish seaman, settled on Home Island in 1827. The family's rule ended in 1978 with the purchase...

Clurman, Harold Edgar
(1901-1980) US theatre director and critic. He helped found the independent Group Theatre in 1931 (other members were Lee Strasberg and Elia Kazan), and directed plays by Clifford Odets (Awake...

Cluseret, Gustave Paul
(1823-1900) French soldier and politician. He fought in the revolution of 1848, the Crimean War, several expeditions under Garibaldi in 1860, and on the side of the Unionists in the USA 1860-61. In 1871 he...

cluster analysis
Statistical technique that arranges units or assemblages in terms of the similarities between them, so the most similar are clustered together. ...

Clynes, John Robert
(1869-1949) British Labour politician. He was chair of the Parliamentary Labour Party 1921-22, Lord Privy Seal and deputy leader of the Commons in 1924, and home secretary 1929-31. A textile worker by...

CND
In Britain, abbreviation for Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. ...

Cnidus
Ancient city in Caria, southwestern Asia Minor, founded...

Cnossus
Alternative form of Knossos, city of ancient Crete. ...

Cnut
Alternative spelling of Canute. ...

co-prosperity sphere
Japanese policy that provided the main strategy for government of East and Southeast Asia during the 1930s. The policy was developed to satisfy Japan's need for raw materials (such as oil, tin, and...

coaching
Conveyance by coach - a horse-drawn passenger carriage on four wheels, sprung and roofed in. Public stagecoaches made their appearance in the middle of the 17th century; the first British mail...

Coade stone
Artificial cast stone widely used in the UK in the late 18th century and early 19th century for architectural ornamentation, keystones, decorative panels, and rustication. Coades Artificial Stone...

coal mining
The expansion of the British coal mining industry to meet the needs of the Industrial Revolution is discussed in Industrial Revolution, coal. ...

Coalbrookdale
Village in the Telford and Wrekin unitary authority, England, effectively a suburb of Telford, situated in the Severn Gorge; population (1991) 1,000. Sometimes known as the `cradle of the...

coalition
Association of political groups, usually for some limited or short-term purpose, such as fighting an election or forming a government when one party has failed to secure a majority in a...

Coalport Porcelain
English porcelain factory, producing both decorative and domestic porcelain. Founded at Coalport, Shropshire in 1796, it amalgamated with the Caughley porcelain...

Coase, Ronald (Harry)
(1910) English-born US economist who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1991 for essentially two articles -`The Nature of the Firm` (1937) and `The Problem of Social Cost` (1960) - both of...

Coastal Command
Combined British naval and Royal Air Force system of defence organized during World War II (1939-45). It was divided into groups which worked in close cooperation with Naval Command, both services...

coastguard
Governmental organization whose members patrol a nation's seacoast to prevent smuggling, assist distressed vessels, watch for oil slicks, and so on. In 1994 the Coastguard became an Executive Agency...

Coatlicue
In Aztec religion, primordial goddess of earth and fire known as `Serpent Skirt`, mother of Mixcoatl and Huitzilopochtli. ...

cob
Traditional building material made from a sun-dried mixture of clay and straw, mostly found in Devon and Dorset. Chalk and gravel were also introduced to the composition. Cob-walls were...

Cobb, Frank Irving
(1869-1923) US editor. Joining Joseph Pulitzer's New York World as editorial page editor and heir apparent in 1904, he was editor in chief from 1911 until his death; he spoke forcefully for liberal causes and...

Cobb, Irvin Shrewsbury
(1876-1944) US writer. He was a regular staff contributor to several US magazines and he specialized in writing humorous short stories, many set in his native Kentucky. His books include Old Judge Priest (1915)...

Cobb, Richard Charles
(born 1917) English historian. Specializing in French history, particularly the French Revolutionary period, his publications include The Police and the People: French Popular Protest 1789-1820 1970 and...

Cobbett, William
(1763-1835) English Radical politician and journalist, who published the weekly Political Register 1802-35. He spent much of his life in North America. His crusading essays on the conditions of the rural poor...

Cobden-Sanderson, Thomas James
(1840-1922) English bookbinder and painter. Influenced by the English designer William Morris and...

Cobden, Richard
(1804-1865) British Liberal politician and economist, cofounder with John Bright of the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838. A member of Parliament from 1841, he opposed class and religious privileges and believed...

Coborn, Charles.
(1852-1945) English music-hall comedian and singer. His outstanding successes were his own song `Two Lovely Black Eyes` (1886) and `The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo`, written and composed in...

Cobra
Group of European expressionist painters formed by the Dutch artist Karel Appel 1948. Other leading members were the Dane Asger Jorn (1914-1973) and the Belgian-born painters Corneille...

Cocaio, Merlin
Pseudonym of Italian poet Teofilo Folengo. ...

Cocceji, Samuel
(1679-1755) Prussian statesman. He became chancellor to Frederick (II) the Great in 1747 and reorganized the Prussian judicial system. ...

Cochise
(c. 1815-1874) American Indian leader who campaigned relentlessly against white settlement of his territory. Unjustly arrested by US authorities in 1850, he escaped from custody and took US hostages, whom he later...

Cochlaeus, Johannes
(1479-1552) German humanist and Roman Catholic controversialist. An active supporter of the Counter-Reformation, he was a fervent opponent of Luther. He strenuously opposed the marriage of Henry VIII of...

Cochran, C(harles) B(lake)
(1872-1951) English impresario. He promoted entertainment ranging from wrestling and roller-skating to Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. He was knighted in 1948. ...

Cockaigne, Land of
In medieval European folklore, a mythical country of luxury and perfect idleness, where fine food and drink were plentiful. All...

cockatrice
In ancient and medieval mythology, a monster hatched from a cock's egg by a serpent. Its glance killed all living things except the herb rue and the weasel, but it could be slain by a cock's crow;...

Cockayne project
Scheme to manufacture cloth in England rather than export wool for this purpose to the Netherlands, named after its originator, Alderman Cockayne of London. A new company, the Merchant Adventurers...

Cockburn, Alexander James Edmund
(1802-1880) English lawyer. His opening speech in the prosecution of Palmer in the celebrated Rugeley murder case in 1856 is famous as a forensic model of its kind. In 1843 he successfully defended M'Naughten,...

Cockburn, George
(1772-1853) English admiral. In the Revolutionary Wars against France, he served under Nelson with the frigate Minerve 1796-1802. He commanded the Phaeton in the East Indies 1803-05 and took part in the...

Cockerell, Charles Robert
(1788-1863) English architect. He built mainly in a neoclassical style derived from antiquity and from the work of Christopher Wren. His buildings include the Cambridge University Library (now the Cambridge Law...

Cockerell, Sydney Carlyle
(1867-1962) English scholar and writer. He was a literary executor of William Morris, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, and Thomas Hardy, and wrote various bibliographical monographs,...

cockney
Native of the City of London. According to tradition cockneys must be born within sound of Bow Bells in Cheapside. The term cockney is also applied to the dialect of the Londoner, of which a...

Cocteau, Jean
(1889-1963) French poet, dramatist, and film director. A leading figure in European modernism, he worked with the artist Picasso, the choreographer Diaghilev, and the composer Stravinsky. He produced many...

Cocytus
In Greek mythology, one of the rivers of the underworld, a tributary of the Acheron. The name, which means wailing, refers to the cries of the dead. ...

Coddington, William
(1601-1678) English-born American colonist who moved to Massachusetts in 1630. He protested against the trial of Anne Hutchinson in 1637 and moved to Aquidneck in Rhode Island, where he later became the...

code
In law, the body of a country's civil or criminal law. The Code Napoléon in France 1804-10 was widely copied in European countries with civil law systems. ...

codex
Book from before the invention of printing: in ancient times wax-coated wooden tablets; later, folded sheets of parchment were attached to the boards, then bound together. The name `codex` was...

Codex Alexandrinus
Greek manuscript of the Old Testament, most of the New Testament, and the two so-called Epistles of Clement. Its probable date is about 450 and is part of the...

Codex Argenteus
Manuscript containing most of all four gospels in the Moeso-Gothic language, now in the university library in Uppsala, Sweden. It was discovered in the abbey of Werden, Westphalia, and is believed...

Codex Exoniensis
Another name for the Exeter Book. ...

Codman, Ogden
(1863-1951) US interior designer. Edith Wharton hired him to decorate her house in Newport. Together they wrote the influential Decoration of Houses (1897), which promoted simplicity and suitability. His work...

Codrington, Christopher
(1668-1710) English soldier and scholar. He served with William III in Flanders in 1694 and was made captain of the 1st regiment of foot guards. In 1697 the king made him captain general and...

Codrington, Edward
(1770-1851) English admiral. He commanded the Orion at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1827 he commanded...

Codussi (or Coducci), Mauro
(c. 1440-1504) Venetian architect. Influenced by the Renaissance architecture of Florence, he imitated the style in his Church of San Michele in Isola (1496-79). His San Giovanni Crisostomo (c. 1500) is the...

Cody, John (Patrick)
(1920-1982) US Catholic cardinal. Assistant bishop of New Orleans in 1961, he implemented the school integration plan, succeeding to the see in 1964 after Archbishop Joseph Rummel's death. Named archbishop of...

Cody, William Frederick
(1846-1917) US scout and performer. From 1883 he toured the USA and Europe with a Wild West show which featured the recreation of Indian attacks and, for a time, the cast included Chief Sitting Bull as well as...

Coe, Michael D (Douglas)
(1929) US anthropologist and educator He joined the faculty at Yale in 1960. Author of numerous studies on pre-Columbian Mexico and CentralAmerica, including the Atlas of Ancient America (1986). He was...

Coecke van Aelst, Pieter
(1502-1550) Netherlands painter, print publisher, and designer. He ran a busy workshop in Brussels, producing not only prints and paintings, but also designs for tapestries and stained-glass windows. He is...

Coehoorn, Menno, Baron van Coehoorn
(1641-1704) Dutch soldier and engineer. He fought and constructed works of defence during the War of the Grand Alliance 1689-97 He surrendered to French forces under Sébastien Vauban at the siege of Namur in...

Coello, Alonso Sánchez
(1532-1588) Spanish portrait painter. He became court painter to Philip II, of whom he painted a number of likenesses. The Portrait of a Young Man (probably Alessandro Farnese) (National Gallery of Ireland,...

Coello, Claudio
(1630-1693) Spanish painter. He painted large-scale religious and decorative works, and became painter to Charles II of Spain 1686. His principal work was the altarpiece in the sacristy of the Escorial, the...

coenobite
Member of a religious order living a communal life. The opposite is a hermit. ...

Coetzee, J(ohn) M(ichael)
(1940) South African writer and critic. His work often reflects his opposition to apartheid. His novels include Dusklands (1974), In the Heart of the Country (1977), Waiting for the Barbarians (1980), Foe...

Coeur, Jacques
(c. 1395-1456) French merchant and financier. He was the master of the mint under Charles VII, and from 1436 was in charge of the French royal finances. With the fortune that he amassed he founded colleges in...

coffee house
Alternative to ale-houses as social meeting place, largely for the professional classes, popular in the 17th and 18th centuries. Christopher Bowman opened the first Coffee House in London (later...

Coffin, Henry Sloane
(1877-1954) US clergyman and educator. An evangelical liberal, who studied for a divinity degree at Union Theological Seminary in 1900, he held Presbyterian pastorates from 1904-26. As president of Union...

Coffin, William Sloane, Jr
(1924) US clergyman and social activist. An ordained Presbyterian minister, he was arrested several times during the civil-rights struggles of the 1960s. He was sued by the US government for advising...

Coggan, (Frederick) Donald
(1909-2000) English prelate, archbishop of Canterbury 1974-80, and archbishop of York 1961-74. In 1975 he issued a `call to the nation` for moral and spiritual renewal. His theological works include On...

cognitive archaeology
The study of past ways of thought from material remains, and of the meanings evoked by the symbolic nature of material culture. ...

Cogswell, Joseph Green
(1786-1871) US librarian. In 1820 he was appointed librarian of Harvard Library and professor of geology there. He reclassified the Harvard Library on the same basis as the one in Göttingen, Germany, where he...

Cohan, George M(ichael)
(1878-1942) US composer. His Broadway hit musical Little Johnny Jones (1904) included his classic songs `Give My Regards to Broadway` and `Yankee Doodle Boy`. `You're a Grand Old Flag` (1906)...

Cohen, Benjamin V (Victor)
(1894-1983) US lawyer and government official. He was an outstanding New York corporate lawyer 1922-33, then he joined Roosevelt's `brain trust`, co-drafting New Deal legislation including the...

Cohen, Gerson D
(1924-1991) US rabbi and historian. Librarian of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America 1950-57, then professor of history, he was also professor of Semitic languages at Columbia University. While he was...

Cohen, Morris R (Raphael)
(1880-1947) Russian-born US philosopher who emigrated to the USA in 1892. A respected teacher, he wrote such works as Reason and Nature (1931) and made contributions to legal, political, and social...

Cohn-Bendit, Daniel
(1945) German student activist and politician. His 22nd March Movement was prominent amongst the leftist movements that took part in the students' and workers' demonstrations in France in May 1968....

Cohn, Roy M (Marcus)
(1927-1986) US lawyer. As chief counsel to Joseph McCarthy's communist-hunting US Senate permanent investigations subcommittee 1953-54, he was an often celebrated, often denigrated US national figure. From...

coiling
In ceramics, a basic technique of forming pottery out of sausage-like lengths of clay. The pottery is built up in layers of coils into the required shape and height. Once the basic shape has been...

COIN
Acronym for counter insurgency, the suppression by a state's armed forces of uprisings against the state. Also called internal security (IS) operations of counter-revolutionary warfare (CRW). The...

coin
Form of money. The right to make and issue coins is a state monopoly, and the great majority are tokens in that their face value is greater than that of the metal of which they consist. A milled...

Coke, Edward
(1552-1634) Lord Chief Justice of England 1613-17. He was a defender of common law against royal prerogative; against Charles I he drew up the petition of right in 1628, which defines and protects...

Coke, Thomas William
(1754-1842) English agriculturalist and politician who was renowned for his innovations in both arable farming and animal husbandry. A long-serving member of Parliament for Norfolk (1776-1806 and...

Colbert, Jean-Baptiste
(1619-1683) French politician, chief minister to Louis XIV, and controller-general (finance minister) from 1665. He reformed the Treasury, promoted French industry and commerce by protectionist measures, and...

Colby, William Edward
(1875-1964) US lawyer and conservationist. Trained as a lawyer, he specialized in forest and mining law. He campaigned for the expansion of Sequoia National Park and the creation of King's Canyon and Olympic...

Colchis
In ancient geography, a territory situated on the east coast of the Black Sea, along the River Rioni, south of the Caucasus Mountains. Now part of Georgia, it is a swampy low-lying region with a...

Cold Harbor, Battle of
American Civil War engagement near Richmond, Virginia, 1-12 June 1864, in which the Confederate army under Robert E Lee repulsed Union attacks under Ulysses S Grant, inflicting heavy casualties...

Cold War
Ideological, political, and economic tensions from 1945 to 1989 between the USSR and Eastern Europe on the one hand and the USA and Western Europe on the other. The Cold War was fuelled by...

Colditz
Castle in eastern Germany, near Leipzig, used as a high-security prisoner-of-war camp (Oflag IVC) in World War II. Among daring escapes was that of British Captain Patrick Reid (1910-1990)...

Cole, G(eorge) D(ouglas) H(oward)
(1889-1959) English economist, historian, and detective-story writer. Chair of the Fabian Society 1939-46 and 1948-50 and its president from 1952, he wrote numerous books on socialism, including...

Cole, George
(1925) English actor. A comic player of flashy and incompetent minor crooks in the St Trinian's farces, commencing with The Belles of St Trinian's (1954) and Too Many Crooks (1959), he has also starred in...

Cole, Henry
(1808-1882) English public official, art critic, and editor. He organized the Great Exhibition of 1851 and played a major part in founding the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum, the Royal Albert...

Cole, Johnetta Betsch
(1936) US cultural anthropologist and academic administrator. She taught at the University of California at Los Angeles, Washington State, the University of Massachusetts, and Hunter College (New York...

Cole, Margaret Isabel
(1893-1980) English writer, historian, and political analyst. A socialist and feminist, she created many distinguished works including The Makers of the Labour Movement (1948) and an acclaimed biography of the...

Cole, Old King
Legendary British king, supposed to be the father of St Helena, who married the Roman emperor Constantius, father of Constantine; he is also supposed to have founded Colchester. The historical Cole...