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The History Channel - Encyclopedia Category: History and Culture > History Date & country: 02/12/2007, UK Words: 25833

Social and Liberal Democrats
Original name for the British political party formed in 1988 from the former Liberal Party and most of the Social Democratic Party. Since 1989 the party has been called the Liberal Democrats. ...

social anthropology
Another term for cultural anthropology. ...

Social Chapter
Chapter of the 1991 Maastricht Treaty on European Union relating to social policy. It required European...

social contract
The idea that government authority derives originally from an agreement between ruler and ruled in which the former agrees to provide order in return for obedience from the latter. It has been used...

social costs and benefits
In economics, the costs and benefits to society as a whole that result from economic decisions. These include private costs (the financial cost of production incurred by firms) and benefits (the...

social credit
Theory that economic crises are caused by bank control of money, which leads to shortage of purchasing power. It was first put forward by Canadian C H Douglas (1879-1952), and his remedy was...

social Darwinism
See Darwinism, social. ...

social democracy
Political ideology or belief in the gradual evolution of a democratic socialism within existing political structures. The earliest was the German Sozialdemokratische Partei (SPD), now one of the two...

Social Democratic and Labour Party
Northern Ireland left-of-centre political party, formed in 1970. It aims ultimately at Irish unification, but has distanced itself from violent tactics, adopting a constitutional, conciliatory...

Social Democratic Federation
In British history, a socialist society, founded as the Democratic Federation in 1881 and renamed in 1884. It was led by H M Hyndman (1842-1921), a former conservative journalist and stockbroker...

Social Democratic Party
British centrist political party 1981-90, formed by members of Parliament who resigned from the Labour Party. The 1983 and 1987 general elections were fought in alliance with...

social exclusion
The emergence in modern Western societies of the increasing group, or underclass, who do not have the means, material and otherwise, to participate in social, economic, political, and cultural life....

Social Fund
In the UK, fund that supplies part of the benefits provided by the Benefits Agency of the Department of Social Security to help people with expenses that are difficult to pay out of regular income....

social history
Branch of history that documents the living and working conditions of people rather than affairs of state. In recent years, television programmes, books, and museums have helped to give social...

social mobility
Movement of groups and individuals up and down the social scale in a classed society. The extent or range of social mobility varies in different societies. Individual social mobility may occur...

social realism
In painting, art that realistically depicts the life, struggles, and urban environment of the lower classes in the 20th century, and focuses on subjects of social and political concern, such as...

social security
State provision of financial aid to reduce poverty. The term `social security` was first applied officially in the USA, in the Social Security Act of 1935. In Britain it was first used...

socialism
Movement aiming to establish a classless society by substituting public for private ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange. The term has been used to describe positions as...

socialism in one country
Concept proposed by the Soviet dictator Stalin in 1924. In contrast to Leon Trotsky's theory of permanent revolution, Stalin suggested that the emphasis be changed away from promoting revolutions...

socialism, Russian
From the mid-19th century the ideas of socialism, such as the establishment of a classless society and public ownership, began to influence early Russian radicals. Their work inspired the Russian...

Society of Friends
Official name of the Quakers; see Friends, Society of. ...

Society of Jesus
Official name of the Roman Catholic order commonly known as the Jesuits. ...

Socinianism
17th-century Christian belief that rejects such traditional doctrines as the Trinity and original sin, named after Socinus, the Latinized name of Lelio Francesco Maria Sozzini (1525-1562),...

Socrates
(c. 469-399 BC) Athenian philosopher. He wrote nothing but was immortalized in the dialogues of his pupil Plato. In his desire to combat the scepticism of the sophists, Socrates asserted the possibility of genuine...

Socrates, José
(1957) Portuguese Socialist Party politician, prime minister from 2005. A former environment minister 1999-2002, he was elected leader of the Socialist Party in September 2004, while in opposition, and...

Socratic method
Method of teaching used by Socrates, in which he aimed to guide pupils to clear thinking on ethics and politics by asking questions and then exposing their inconsistencies in cross-examination....

Sodom and Gomorrah
Two ancient cities in the Dead Sea area of the Middle East, recorded in the Old Testament (Genesis) as being destroyed by fire and brimstone for their wickedness. ...

Sodoma, Il, Giovanni Antonio Bazzi
(1477-1549) Italian painter. Strongly influenced by Leonardo da Vinci, he developed an ornate and graceful style. Much of his best work consists of frescoes on religious and mythological subjects in Siena and...

sodomy
Another term for buggery. ...

Sodor and Man
In the Anglican Church, the title of the bishop responsible for the Isle of Man. It is a relic of a former Norse kingdom disbanded in 1266 when the Hebrides became part of Scotland. ...

SOE
See Special Operations Executive. ...

Soest, Konrad von
(c. 1378-c. 1415) German painter, active in Dortmund from about 1394. His principal works are the altarpiece Crucifixion (1404) in Niederwildungen and Madonna (1420) in Dortmund. ...

soft currency
Vulnerable currency that tends to fall in value on foreign-exchange markets because of political or economic uncertainty. Governments are unwilling to hold soft currencies in their...

soft style
In art, a form of International Gothic flourishing in Germany in the late 14th and 15th centuries. It is characterized by harmonious compositions, flowing draperies, delicate rhythms, and the...

Soglo, Nicéphore
(1934-2005) Benin politician, prime minister 1990-91 and president 1991-96. He first became prominent as inspector general of finances at the Benin finance ministry and as a governor of the International...

Sohila
In Sikh worship, a prayer of verses sung before sleep or at funeral during the cremation. The Sohila reassures the worshipper that in the gurus' teachings can be found a treasure that will...

Soignies
Belgian town in the province of Hainault, a junction on the Brussels-Mons railway line 35 km/22 mi southwest of Brussels. It was the site of the first clash between British and German troops of...

Sokhumi
Capital of the Abkhazia autonomous republic in Georgia, situated on the Black Sea, 340 km/211 mi northwest of Tbilisi; population (1996) 525,000. Sokhumi is a port and popular resort. Its industries...

Sokolovsky, Vasily
(1897-1968) Soviet general in World War II. Chief of staff to the West Front Army from 1941, he took command of it 1943, led it in the counteroffensive after the Battle of Kursk and liberated Smolensk. His...

Sokomanu, Ati George
(1937) Vanuatuan politician, president 1980-88. Upon becoming president, he caused a constitutional crisis in December 1988 when he dismissed Walter Lini, the prime minister since 1980; dissolved...

Solari, Andrea da
(1460-1520) Italian painter. He travelled widely, his style as a consequence combining the influences of Leonardo da Vinci and Venetian and Flemish painting. His Giovanni Cristoforo Longoni (1505, National...

Solario, Antonio da
(lived early 16th century) Italian painter, active largely in Venice. He was a follower of Giovanni Bellini and Vittorio Carpaccio. Principal works by him were frescoes illustrative...

Soldner, Paul
(1921) US ceramist. Influential as ceramics professor at Scripps College (Claremont, California), he is responsible for establishing Japanese raku firing techniques in American...

sole trader
One person who runs a business, receiving all profits and responsible for all liabilities. Many small businesses are sole traders. ...

Solecki, Ralph (Stefan)
(1917) US anthropologist. He was a member of the faculty at Columbia University 1959-88. His best-known excavations were at the Neanderthal site at Shanidar Cave in Iraq. His publications include early...

Solemn League and Covenant
Alliance between the Scots and English Parliamentarians on 25 September 1643 during the English Civil War; both sides agreed to abolish episcopacy and introduce Presbyterianism. In return for...

Solferino, Battle of
Napoleon III's victory over the Austrians 1859 at a village near Verona, northern Italy, 8 km/5 mi south of Lake Garda. ...

solicitor
In the UK, a member of one of the two branches of the English legal profession, the other being a barrister. A solicitor is a lawyer who provides all-round legal services (making wills, winding up...

Solicitor General
In the UK, a law officer of the crown, deputy to the Attorney General, a political appointee...

Solidarity
National confederation of independent trade unions in Poland, formed under the leadership of Lech Wa&lsla;&ecedil;sa September 1980. An illegal organization from 1981 to 1989, it was then elected to...

soliloquy
In drama, thinking aloud. A soliloquy is a speech for the benefit of the audience only and by convention is not heard by any other actor on stage at the time. Soliloquy is a form of monologue. It...

Solimena, Francesco
(1657-1747) Italian baroque painter. He was active mostly in Naples and decorated many churches, among his best works being frescoes in S Paolo Maggiore, Naples, and his Last Supper (Assisi). His later works...

Solinus, Gaius Julius
(lived 4th century AD) Roman compiler. He was author of a geographical work entitled Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium, commonly known by its second title, Polyhistor. Solinus was so obviously indebted to Pliny the Elder 's...

solipsism
In philosophy, a view that maintains that the self is the only thing that can be known to exist. It is an extreme form of scepticism. The solipsist sees himself or herself as the only individual in...

Solís y Ribadeneyra, Antonio de
(1610-1686) Spanish dramatist and historian. In 1654 he became secretary to Philip IV. He wrote courtly, satirical plays and a Historia de la conquista de Mexico/History of the Conquest of Mexico 1684. ...

Solma-Ri, Battle of
In the Korean War, defeat of United Nations forces by North Korean and Chinese communist forces 22-25 April 1951 on the Imjin River, South Korea. Although a tactical defeat, Solma-Ri was a...

Solomon
(c. 974-c. 922 BC) In the Old Testament, third king of Israel, son of David by Bathsheba. During a peaceful reign, he was famed for his wisdom and his alliances with Egypt and Phoenicia. The much later biblical...

Solomon Islands
Country in the southwest Pacific Ocean, east of New Guinea, comprising many hundreds of islands, the largest of which is Guadalcanal. Government The constitution dates from 1978 and provides for a...

Solomon, Hannah Greenebaum
(1858-1942) US social reformer. In 1890 she organized the Jewish Women's Congress, which became the National Council of Jewish Women; she was its president until 1905 (and then honorary president for life)....

Solomons, Estella
(1882-1968) Irish painter. Solomons studied under two of Ireland's leading artists, Walter Osborne and William Orpen and was an early member of the Irish impressionist school. Becoming increasingly politically...

Solomos, Dionysios
(1798-1857) Greek poet. His Ode to Liberty 1823 is the source of the Greek national anthem. He wrote Lambros, The Cretan, and successive drafts of Missolonghi, or The Free Besieged but...

Solon
(c. 638-c. 558 BC) Athenian statesman. As one of the chief magistrates about 594 BC, he carried out the cancellation of all debts from which land or liberty was the security and the revision of the constitution that...

Soloviev, Vladimir Sergeyevich
(1853-1900) Russian philosopher and poet. His blending of neo-Platonism and Christian mysticism attempted to link all aspects of human experience in a doctrine of divine wisdom. His theories, expressed in...

Solow, Robert Merton
(1924) US economist, known primarily for his ground-breaking work on growth theory in the 1950s and 1960s. Solow also contributed to macroeconomic analysis and the economics of non-renewable resources....

solvency
State of a business when its current...

Solway Moss, Battle of
Crushing defeat on 24 November 1542 of the Scots by an invading English force under the Duke of Norfolk. Some 500 Scottish prisoners were captured including two earls and five barons, and the shame...

Solyman I
Alternative spelling of Suleiman, Ottoman sultan. ...

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander Isayevich
(1918) Russian novelist. He became a US citizen in 1974. He was in prison and exile 1945-57 for anti-Stalinist comments. Much of his writing is semi-autobiographical and highly critical...

soma
Intoxicating drink made from the fermented sap of the Asclepias acida plant, used in Indian religious ritual as a sacrifice to the gods. Its consumption also constituted the central rite in...

Somali
Member of a group of East African peoples from the Horn of Africa. Although the majority of Somalis live in the Somali Republic, there are minorities in Ethiopia and Kenya. Primarily nomadic...

Somalia
Country in northeast Africa (the Horn of Africa), on the Indian Ocean, bounded northwest by Djibouti, west by Ethiopia, and southwest by Kenya. Government Since the overthrow of the Barre regime in...

Somare, Michael (Thomas)
(1936) Papua New Guinean centre-left politician, chief minister 1972-75, and prime minister 1975-80 and 1982-85. He founded the the pro-independence centre-left Pangu Pati (PP; Papua New Guinea...

Somerset
Family name of the dukes of Beaufort, seated at Badminton in Gloucestershire, England; they are descended in an illegitimate line from King Edward III. ...

Somerset House
Government office in the Strand, London, built 1775. It is used by the Inland Revenue, the Principal Probate Registry, where wills are kept, and by...

Somersett's Case
See Mansfield's judgment. ...

Somerville and Ross
Irish writers. Somerville and Ross were both members of the Anglo-Irish ascendancy, Martin living at Ross House, County Galway, and Somerville in the village of Castletownshend, County Cork. Their...

Somerville, Edith (Anna Oenone)
(1861-1949) Irish novelist. Born into a wealthy Anglo-Irish family, she lived on the family estate in the village of Castletownshend, County Cork, and wrote stories of Anglo-Irish life jointly with her...

Somme, Battle of the
Allied offensive in World War I July-November 1916 on the River Somme in northern France, during which severe losses were suffered by both sides. It was planned by the Marshal of France, Joseph...

Sommeiller, Germain
(1815-1871) French engineer who built the Mont Cenis Tunnel, 12 km/7 mi long, between Switzerland and France. The tunnel was drilled with his invention the pneumatic drill. ...

Somoza (García), Anastasio
(1896-1956) Nicaraguan soldier and politician, president 1937-47 and 1950-56. As head of the Nicaraguan army, he deposed President Juan Bautista Sacasa, his uncle, in 1936 and assumed the presidency the...

Somoza Debayle, Anastasio
(1925-1980) Nicaraguan soldier and politician, president 1967-72 and 1974-79. The second son of Anastasio Somoza García, he succeeded his brother Luis Somoza Debayle as president of Nicaragua in 1967, to...

Somoza Debayle, Luis
(1923-1967) Nicaraguan nationalist liberal politician, president 1956-63. He took over the presidency on the assassination of his father, Anastasio Somoza Garcia. He introduced a number of social reforms,...

son et lumière
Outdoor night-time dramatization of the history of a notable building, monument, or town, using theatrical lighting effects, sound effects, music, and narration; it was invented by Paul Robert...

Son of Many Beads
(c. 1866-1954) American Indian Navajo leader who worked to secure title to land in New Mexico for his people. Various archaeologists and anthropologists studying the Navajos relied on him to explain the Navajo...

sondage
In archaeology, a deep test-pit used to investigate a site's stratigraphy (layered arrangement of deposits) before carrying out larger-scale excavation. ...

Song dynasty (or Sung dynasty)
(lived 10th-13th centuries) Chinese imperial family ruling from 960 to 1279, founded by northern general Taizu or Zhao Kuangyin (928-76). A distinction is conventionally made between the Northern Song period (960-1126),...

Song Jiaoren (or Sung Chiao-jen)
(1882-1913) Chinese revolutionary and champion of parliamentary government. Song was the principal spokesperson of the Guomindang (nationalist party) in the elections of 1912, carrying out a vigorous...

Song Kran
Thai Buddhist New Year festival held in mid-April. People wear garlands of jasmine buds, buy and release birds, and splash each other with water to symbolize new life. Talcum powder is applied to...

Song of Myself
The longest poem in Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass, relating the poet, the single separate person, to the democratic en masse. It was regularly revised from its original form of 1855 to...

Songhai
Member of a people of Mali. They live by farming and fishing; many are skilled craftworkers. The Songhai are descendants of the great ...

Songhai Empire
Former kingdom of northwestern Africa, founded in the 8th century, which developed into a powerful Muslim empire under the rule of Sonni Ali (reigned 1464-92). It superseded the Mali Empire and...

Sonnenschein, Rosa
(1847-1932) Hungarian-born US editor who immigrated to the USA in 1869. She was editor of American Jewess, a women's paper, 1895-99. A moderate liberal, she was sympathetic to Zionism and believed in...

sonnet
Genre of 14-line poem of Italian origin introduced to England by English poet Thomas Wyatt in the form used by Italian poet Petrarch and followed by English poets John...

Sonnino, Sidney
(1847-1922) Italian politician and diplomat, prime minister in 1906 and 1909-10. As foreign minister 1914-20 he was responsible, with Prime Minister Antonio ...

Sons and Lovers
Novel (1913) by D H Lawrence ...

Sons of Liberty
In American colonial history, the name adopted by those colonists opposing the Stamp Act of 1765. Merchants, lawyers, farmers, artisans, and labourers joined what was an early instance of concerted...

Sontag, Susan
(1933-2004) US critic and writer. She established herself as a critic with the influential cultural essays `Against Interpretation` (1966) and `Styles of Radical Will` (1969). Subsequent critical works...

Soong Ching-ling (or Sung Qingling)
(1890-1981) Chinese politician, wife of the Kuomintang (Guomindang) nationalist leader ...

Soong, T V (or Tse-Ven)
(1894-1971) Chinese nationalist financier and politician. He was finance minister of the nationalist government at Guangzhou (Canton) 1925-27 and at Nanjing 1928 to 1933. He westernized Chinese finances,...

Soper, Alexander (Coburn, III)
(1904-1993) US architectural historian. The first American historian of East Asian architecture, he laid the foundations for the study of Chinese and Japanese architecture in the USA He at first worked on...