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Dictionary of Philosophy - Dagobert D. Runes Category: Language and Literature > Philosophy Date & country: 17/05/2009, UK Words: 2784

Tone
(Music) The larger intervals in diatonic scale. (Painting) The modification of colors through the general effect of light and shade. -- L.V.

Topics
(Gr. Topika) The title of a treatise by Aristotle on dialectical reasoning, so named because the material is grouped into convenient topoi, or common-places of argument, useful in examining an opponent's assertions. See Dialectic. -- G.R.M.

Totemism
(Totem, Of Ojibway origin) A feature of primitive social organization whereby the members of a tribe possess group solidarity by virtue of their association with a class of animals or in some cases plants or inanimate objects. The primitive conception of the totem as the essential unity and solidarity among the different members of a class of men ...

Totum divisum
Latin expression denoting a whole having some kind of unity, which is to be divided, or is capable of division. Thus a logical whole, some general idea, may be broken up into smaller classes, or members, according to some principle of division, or point of view. -- J.J.R.

Trace Theory of Memory
Physiological explanation of memory through the conservation of traces in the nervous system. Opposed to the theory of Mnemic causation. See Mnemic Causation. -- L.W.

Traditionalism
In French philosophy of the early nineteenth century, the doctrine that the truth -- particularly religious truth -- is never discovered by an individual but is only to be found in 'tradition'. It was revealed in potentia at a single moment by God and has been developing steadily through history. Since truth is an attribute of ideas, the tradition...

Traducianism
The view that the soul (as well as the body) is generated from the souls of parents. A doctrine dating back to Tertullian (200 A.D.) The process of natural propagation procreates the soul. -- V.F.

Trans-ordinal laws
Connecting properties of aggregates of different orders. Laws connecting the characteristics of inorganic things with living tilings. (Broad). -- H.H.

Transcendent Reference
The reference of a mental state to something beyond itself. See Reference. -- L.W.

Transcendent
(L. transcendere to climb over, surpass, go beyond) That which is beyond, in any of several senses. The opposite of the immanent (q.v.). In Scholasticism notions are transcendent which cannot be subsumed under the Aristotelian categories. The definitive list of transcendentia comprises ens, unum, bonum, verum, res, and aliquid. For Kant whatever ...

Transcendental analytic
The first part of Kant's Logic; its function is 'the dissection of the whole of our a priori knowledge into the elements of the pure cognition of the understanding,' (Kritik d. reinen Vemunft, Part II, div. I, tr. M. Müller, 2nd ed., pp. 50-1), to be distinguished from (1) Transcendental Aesthetic, which studies the a priori forms of sensatio...

Transcendental idealism
See Idealism. -- A.C.E.

Transcendental Illusion
(Kant Ger. transzendentaler Schein) An illusion resulting from the tendency of the mmd to accept the a priori forms of reason, valid only in experience, as constituting the nature of ultimate reality. Thus we are led, according to Kant, to think Ideas, such as God, World, and Soul, though we cannot know them. See Kantianism. -- O.F.K.

Transcendental method
(In Kant) The analysis of the conditions (a priori forms of intuition, categories of the understanding, ideals of reason) that make possible human experience and knowledge. See Kantianism.

Transcendental Object
(Kant, Ger. transzendentale Objekt) The pure rational 'x' which Kant defines as the general form of object or the object as such. It is not a particular concrete object, but the ideal objective correlate of pure consciousness as such. It is the object which the mind seeks to know in each empirical cognition. See Kantianism. -- O.F.K.

Transcendental Philosophy
Kant's name for his proposed a priori science of pure science ('pure reason') which would include both a detailed analysis of its fundamental concepts and a complete list of all derivative notions. Such a study would go beyond the purpose and scope of his Critique of Pure Reason. Name given to Kant's philosophy. Schelling's term for his science o...

Transcendental proof
In Kant's Philosophy: Proof by showing that what is proved is a necessary condition without which human experience would be impossible and therefore valid of all phenomena. -- A.C.E.

Transcendental
(Ger. transzendental) In Kant's Philosophy: Adjective applied to the condition of experience or anything relating thereto. Thus transcendental knowledge is possible while transcendent knowledge is not. In the Dialectic, however, the term transcendental is often used where one would expect transcendent. -- A.C.E.

Transcendentalism
Any doctrine giving emphasis to the transcendent or transcendental (q.v.). Originally, a convenient synonym for the 'transcendental philosophy' (q.v.) of Kant and Schelling. By extension, post-Kantian idealism. Any idealistic philosophy positing the immanence of the ideal or spiritual in sensuous experience. The philosophy of the Absolute (q.v.),...

Transcendentals (Scholastic)
The transcendentalia are notions which apply to any being whatsoever. They are Being, Thing, Something, One, True, Good. While thing (res) and being (ens) are synonymous, the other four name properties of being which, however, are only virtually distinct from the concept to which they apply. -- R.A.

Transfinite induction
A generalization of the method of proof by mathematical induction or recursion (see recursion, proof by), applicable to a well-ordered class of arbitrary ordinal number -- especially one of ordinal number greater than omega (see ordinal number) -- in a way similar to that in which mathematical induction is applicable to a well-ordered class of ord...

Transfinite ordinals
See ordinal number.

Transformator
In R. Reininger's philosophy, the agent or factor bringing about the change from the physical sensition or perception to experience as something psychic. -- K.F.L.

Transitive States
(Lat. transire, to passover) W. James' term which designates those parts of the stream of thought which effect a transition from one substantive state to another. See Substantive States. -- L.W.

Transitivity
A dyadic relation R is transitive if, whenever xRy and yRz both hold, xRz also holds. Important examples of transitive relations are the relation of identity or equality; the relation less than among whole numbers, or among rational numbers, or among real numbers, the relation precedes among instants of time (as usually taken); the relation of cla...

Transmigration of Souls
See Metempsychosis.

Transpathy
(Lat. trans, across + pathos, feeling) As distinct from sympathy is feeling engendered by 'contigion'. In sympathy the function of 'after-experiencing' is so interwoven with true sympathy that in experienced separation of the two never occurs. In the case of transpathy, the two functions are distinctly separated from eich other in experience. Tran...

Transposition
The form of valid inference of the propositional calculus from A ? B to ~B ? ~A. The law of transposition is the theorem of the propositional calculus, [p ? q] ? [~q ? ~q]. -- A.C.

Transubjective Reference
(Lat. trans, across + subjectivus from subjicere) The reference of an item of thought to an object independent of the knowing subject. -- L.W.

Transvaluation of values
Nietzsche's proposal of revolutionizing the reigning tendencies and sentiments of one's age. -- H.H.

Trendelenburg, Friedrich Adolf
(1802-1872) A German idealist who attempted to substitute the concept of 'motion' for Hegel's dialectics, the central theme of his writings is the notion of purpose. -- R.B.W. Main works: Logische Untersuchungen, 1840; Die sittliche Idee des Rechts, 1849; Naturrecht auf dem Grunde der Ethik, 1860.

Trichotomy
(Gr. tricha, threefold; temno, to cut) Literally, a division into three parts. More specifically the doctrine that man consists of soul, body and spirit. This view appears as a later doctrine in the Old Testament, in Stoic thought and was held by St. Paul. -- V.F.

Trika
An Indian philosophic system founded by Vasugupta in the 9th cent. A.D., having flourished among the Shivaites of Kashmir till the 14th cent., and now revising along with the Southern, Tamil, offshoot of the Shaiva-siddhanta. Its aim is the recognition of Shiva as one's own inmost nature (see pratyabhijna) from which ensues progressive dissolution...

Trilemma
See Proof by cases.

Trimurti
(Skr. having three shapes) The Hindu trinity, religiously interpreted as the three gods Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva, or metaphysically as the three principles of creation-maintenance-destruction operative in cosmo-psychology. -- K.F.L.

Trinitarianism
a) Referring to a Roman Catholic order founded in 1198 to redeem Christian captives from Mohammedans. b) The usual meaning of the term the doctrine of the Trinitarians who hold that the nature of God is one in substance and three in embodiment (Latin: persona). Upon the basis of Platonic realism (q.v.) which makes the universal fundamental and the...

Tripitaka
'The Three Baskets', the Buddhistic Canon as finally adopted by the Council of Sthaviras, or elders, held under the auspices of Emperor Asoka, about 245 B.C., at Pataliputra, consisting of three parts 'The basket of discipline', 'the basket of (Buddha's) sermons', and 'the basket of metaphysics.' -- K.F.L.

Tritheism
Name given to the opinions of John Philoponus, the noted commentator on Aristotle, Conon, Bishop of Tarsus, and Eugeius, Bishop of Seleucia in Isauria, leaders of a group of Monophysites of the sixth century, which were understood in the sense that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three partial substances and distinct individuals, consequently...

Trivium
(Lat. tres, and viae, three ways) The first three disciplines in the mediaeval, educational system of seven liberal arts. The trivium includes grammar, rhetoric and dialectic See Quadrivium. -- V.J.B.

Truth, semantical
Closely connected with the name relation (q.v.) is the property of a propositional formula (sentence) that it expresses a true proposition (or if it has free variables, that it expresses a true proposition for all values of these variables). As in the case of the name relation, a notation for the concept of truth in this sense often cannot be adde...

Truth-Frequency
(Prob.) See Probability, sec. D (III).

Truth-function
is either (1) a function (q.v.) from propositions to propositions such that the truth-value of the value of the function is uniquely determined by the truth-values alone of the arguments; or (2) simply a function from truth-values to truth-values. -- A.C.

Truth-table method
See logic, formal, § 1, and propositional calculus, many-valued. C. S. Peirce, On the algebra of logic, American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 7 (1885), pp. 180-202; reprinted in his Collected Papers, vol. 3. J. Lukasiewicz, Logika dwuwartosciowa, Przeglad Filozoficzny. vol. 23 (1921), pp. 189-205. L. L. Post, Introduction to a general theory...

Truth-value
On the view that every proposition is either true or false, one may speak of a proposition as having one of two truth-values, viz. truth or falsehood. This is the primary meaning of the term truth-value, but generalizations have been consideied according to which there are more than two truth-values -- see propositional calculus, many-valued. -- A...

Truth
A characteristic of some propositional meanings, namely those which are true. Truth (or falsity) as predicated of 'ideas' is today normally restricted to those which are propositional in nature, concepts being spoken of as being exemplified or not rather than as being true or false. Truth is predicable indirectly of sentences or symbols which expr...

Truth
See also Semiotic 2.

Ts'ai
a) This means that when a man is not good, it is not because he is actually lacking in the basic 'natural powers,' 'natural endowment,' or 'raw material', whereby to be good. His badness results simply from the fact that he has not developed the beginnings of virtue, which is not the fault of his 'natural powers' (Mencius). b) Power. Heaven, Earth...

Ts'e yin
The feeling of commiseration. (Mencius) -- H.H.

Ts'un hsin
Preserving one's native mind, that is, preserving in one's heart benevolence and propriety which are natural to man. (Mencius). -- W.T.C.

Ts'un hsing
Putting the desires into proper harmony by restraint, the way to achieve 'complete preservation of one's nature'. (Yang Chu, c 440-c 360 B.C.). -- H.H.

Ts'un sheng
'Completeness of living', which is the best, is the enjoyment of life not to excess, a life in which all desires reach a proper harmony. While advocating restraint of the desires, Yang Chu (c 440-c 360 B.C.) at the same time maintains the fulfillment of these. -- H.H.

Tsa chia
The 'Miscellaneous' or 'Mixed' School, which 'drew from the Confucians and the Mohists and harmonized the Logicians and the Legalists,' including Shih Tzu (fourth century B.C.), Lu Pu-wei (290?-235 B.C.), and Huai-nan Tzu (d. 122 B.C.) -- W.T.C.

Tsao hua
(a) Creator, also called tsao wu (che). (b) Heaven and Earth; the Active or Male Cosmic Principle (yang) and the Passive or Female Cosmic Principle (yin). -- W.T.C.

Tsao wu (che)
Creator. Also called tsao hua. -- W.T.C.

Tso wang
'Sitting in forgetfulness'; that state of absolute freedom, in which the distinctions between others and self is forgotten, in which life and death are equated, in which all things have become one. A state of pure experience, in which one becomes at one with the infinite. (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.). -- H.H.

Tsung heng
Diplomatists in ancient China. -- W.T.C.

Tu hua
Spontaneous transformation, the universal law of existence, the guiding principle of which is neither any divine agency or any moral law but Tao. (Kuo Hsiang, d. 321 A.D.). -- W.T.C.

Tu
Steadfastness in quietude, in order to comprehend Fate, The Eternal, and Tao (Lao Tzu). -- W.T.C.

Tuan
Human nature is innately good insofar as all men possess the 'beginnings' of the virtues, which if completely developed, make a man a sage. (Mencius). -- H.H.

Tui
The opposite. Everything has its opposite. 'When there is the active force (yang), there is the passive force (yin). When there is good, there is evil. As yang increases, yin decreases, and as goodness is augmented, evil is diminished.' (Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1086). -- W.T.C.

Tuism
(from Latin tu, thou) In ethics the doctrine which puts the emphasis on the well-being of one's fellow-men. Another name for altruism, which see. -- K.F.L.

Tung Chung-shu
(177-104 B.C.) was the leading Confucian of his time, premier to two feudal princes, and consultant to the Han emperor in framing national policies. Firmly believing in retribution, he strongly advocated the 'science of catastrophic and anomalies,' and became the founder and leader of medieval Confucianism which was extensively confused with the Y...

Tung
(a) Activity; motion; 'the constant feature of the active or male cosmic principle (yang)' of the universe, just as passivity is the constant feature of the passive or female cosmic principle (yin). According to Chou Lien-hsi 1017-1173), 'the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi) moves, becomes active, and generates the active principle (yang). When its activ...

Turro y Darder, Ramon
Spanish Biologist and Philosopher. Born in Malgrat, Dec. 8 1854. Died in Barcelona, June 5, 1926. As a Biologist, his conclusions about the circulation of the blood, more than half a century ago, were accepted and verified by later researchers and theorists. Among other things, he showed the insufficiency and unsatisfactoriness of the mechanistic ...

Tychism
A term derived from the Greek, tyche, fortune, chance, and employed by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) to express any theory which regards chance as an objective reality, operative in the cosmos. Also the hypothesis that evolution occurs owing to fortuitous variations. -- J.J.R.

Type-token ambiguity
The words token and type are used to distinguish between two senses of the word word. Individual marks, more or less resembling each other (as 'cat' resembles 'cat' and 'CAT') may (1) be said to be 'the same word' or (2) so many 'different words'. The apparent contradiction therby involved is removed by speaking of the individual marks as tokens, ...

Types, theory of
See Logic, formal, § 6; Paradoxes, logical; Ramified theory of types.

Tz'u
(a) Parental love, kindness, or affection, the ideal Confucian virtue of parents. (b) Love, kindness in general. -- W.T.C.

Tzu hua
Self-transformation or spontaneous transformation without depending on any divine guidance or eternal agency, but following the thing's own principle of being, which is Tao. (Taoism). -- W.T.C.

Tzu jan
The natural, the natural state, the state of Tao, spontaneity as against artificiality. (Lao Tzu; Huai-nan Tzu, d. 122 B.C.). -- W.T.C.

Ultimate Value
See Value, ultimate.

Ultramontanism
(Lat. ultra, beyond, and montanus, pertaining to mountains, i.e., the Alps) Extreme theory of the absolute supremacy of the Pope, not only in religious but in political matters -- V.J.B.

Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de
Spanish Professor and writer. Born at Bilbao, Spain, September 29, 1864. Died 1936. First and secondary education in Bilbao. Philosophical studies and higher learning at the Central University of Madrid since 1880. Private instructor in Bilbao, 1884-1891. Professor of Greek language and literature at the University of Salamanca since 1891. Preside...

Unanimism
A teim invented by Jules Romains to mean (1) a belief 'in a certain reality of a spiritual nature,' and (2) a belief that the human soul can enter into direct, immediate, and intuitive communication with the universal soul. -- G.B.

Uncertainty principle
A principle of quantum mechanics (q.v.), according to which complete quantitative measurement of certain states and processes in terms of the usual space-time coordinates is impossible. Macroscopically negligible, the effect becomes of importance on the electronic scale. In particular, if simultaneous measurements of the position and the momentum ...

Unconscious Mind
A compartment of the mind which lies outside the consciousness, existence of which has frejuently been challenged. See for example W. James, The Principles of Psychology, Vol. I, pp. 162 ff. See Subconscious Mind. -- L.W.

Unconscious
According to Ed. v. Hartmann (q.v.) the united unconscious will and unconscious idea -- K.F.L.

Understanding
(Kant. Ger. Verstand) The faculty of thinking the object of sensuous intuition; or the faculty of concepts, judgments and principles. The understanding is the source of concepts, categories and principles by means of which the manifold of sense is brought into the unity of apperception. Kant suggests that understanding has a common root with sensi...

Undistributed middle
In the categorical syllogism (logic, formal, § 5), the middle term must appear in at least one of the two premisses (major and minor) is dtstributed -- i.e., as denoting the subject of a proposition A or E, or the predicate of a proposition E or O. Violation of this rule is the fallacy of undistributed middle. A.C.

Uniformity of Nature
Principle that what happens once in nature will, under a sufficient degree of similarity of circumstances, happen again and as often as the same circumstances recur. -- A.C.B.

Unio mystica
(Lat.) Mystical union; the merging of the individual consciousness, cognitively or affectively, with a superior, or supreme consciousness. See Mysticism. -- V.J.B.

Union
(in Scholasticism) Is often designated from the effect which united pnrts manifest, as in essential union by which parts constituting the essence of a thing are united, -- or accidental union by which an accident is united to a substance. -- H.G.

Unipathy
(Ger. Einsfühlung) Is a form of emotional identification, seems close to the teim 'participation' of Levy-Bruhl. There are two types of unipathy: idiopathic and heteropathic. In the one the alter is absorbed by the ego, and in the other the ego is absorbed by the alter. See Sympathy. -- H.H.

Unit class
A class having one and only one member. Or, to give a definition which does not employ the word one, a class a is a unit class if there is an x such that x?a and, for all y, y?a implies y = x. -- A.C.

Unitarianism
The mme for the theological view which emphasises the oneness of God in opposition to the Triitarian formula (q.v.). Although the term is modern, the idea underlying Unitarianism is old. In Christian theology any expression of the status of Jesus as being less than a metaphysical part of Deity is of the spirit of Unitarianism (e.g., Dynamistic Mon...

Unity of Science, Unified Science
See Scientific Empiricism IIB.

Universal class
See logic, formal, § 7.

Universal proposition
See particular proposition.

Universal quantifier
See quantifier.

Universal
(Lat. universalia, a universal) That term which can be applied throughout the universe. A possibility of discrete being. According to Plato, an idea (which see). According to Aristotle, that which by its nature is fit to be predicated of many. For medieval realists, an entity whose being is independent of its mental apprehension or actual exemplif...

Universalism
The doctrine that each individual should seek as an end the welfare of all. Usually advanced on the basis of the principle that the intrinsic value of an entity, e.g., pleasure, does not vary with the individual possessing it. -- C.A.B. In Theology: Unless otherwise defined, the term refers to the Christian denomination which emphasizes the univer...

Universe of discourse
See individual; and logic, formal, §§ 7, 8

Universe
(a) Metaphysics (1) The complete natural world, (2) That whole composed of all particulars and of all universals. (3) The Absolute. (b) Logic: The universe of discourse in any given treatment is that class such that all other classes treated are subclasses of it and consequently such that all members of any class treated are members of it. See log...

Upadhi
(Skr. substitute, disguise) One of many conditions of body and mind obscuring the true state of man or his self which Indian philosophies try to remove for the attainment of moksa (q.v.). -- K.F.L.

Upamana
(Skr.) Comparison, a valid source of knowledge and truth in some Indian philosophical systems -- K.F.L.

Upanishad, Upanisad
(Skr.) One of a large number of treatises, more than 100. Thirteen of the oldest ones (Chandogya, Brhadaranyaka, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Katha, Isa, Mundaka, Kausitaki, Kena, Prasna, Svetasvatara, Mandukya, Maitri) have the distinction of being the first philosophic compositions, antedating for the most part the beginnings of Greek philosophy, other...

Upasana
(Skr. sitting near) Worship, reverential attitude -- K.F.L.

Upasanakanda
(Skr.) That portion of the Veda (q.v.) dealing with worship. -- K.F.L.

Usiologie
A German term apparently not used in English, derived from the Greek, Ousia, essence, hence the science of essence -- J.J.R.

Uti
St. Augustine holds that the verbs uti and frui have not the same meaning. We use things because we need them, whereas we enjoy that which causes pleasure; utimur pro necesitate, fruimur pro iucunditate. -- J.J.R.