Copy of `NLS Framework - Glossary of teaching terms`
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NLS Framework - Glossary of teaching terms
Category: Language and Literature > Grammar
Date & country: 15/12/2007, UK
Words: 223
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Literal Comprehension level of understanding of a text: the reader has access to the surface details of the text, and can recall details which have been directly related.
Literacy communication skill. The term literacy originally, and most often, applied to written communication; however, it can also be applied to other forms, as in media literacy, computer literacy.
Limerick A five-line comic verse following the syllable pattern 8 8 6 6 8 with the rhyme scheme a a b b a. Early limericks, such as the nonsense verse of Edward Lear, repeat line 1 in line 5. However, recent verse does not always follow this model.
Letter String a group of letters which together represent a phoneme or morpheme.
Legend a traditional story about heroic characters such as King Arthur, which may be based on truth, but which has been embellished over the years. Also refers to the wording on maps and charts which explains the symbols used.
Kenning a compound expression used in Old English and Norse poetry, which named something without using its name, for example mouse catcher = cat. Anglo-Saxons often used kennings to name their swords: death bringer. A poem made of kennings would be a list of such expressions about one subject: MY DOG ankle biter bone cruncher night howler rabbit catcher …
Jingle a short verse or line used to attract attention and be memorable. May be based on alliteration or rhyme. Often associated with advertising.
Jargon language used by a particular profession or interest group. May include vocabulary unfamiliar to those outside the group, sometimes deliberately.
Interrogative Pronouns who/whom, whose, which, what Who did that? What happened?
Intonation Intonation is the way in which changes in the musical pitch of the voice are used to structure speech and to contribute to meaning. Among other functions, intonation may distinguish questions from statements (as in 'Sure?' 'Sure!'), or indicate contrastive and emotive stress (as in 'I said two, not three', or 'I just hate that advertisement!').
Internal Rhyme placement of rhyming words within a line of poetry: 'Though the threat of snow was growing slowly...' see also assonance and rhyme
Interjection An interjection is a word like Ouch!, Oh! or Damn! expressing an emotion such as pain, surprise, anger, etc. An interjection is followed by an exclamation mark (!). see also exclamation
Instruction Text text written to help readers achieve certain goals. The text may consist of a statement of the intended outcome, the materials needed to achieve it and a sequence of actions in chronological order. Connectives will often be time-related; verbs may be imperative, and will often be placed at the beginning of sentences to form a series of commands. E…
Innovation On Text a classroom strategy in which the teacher uses a familiar text as the model for a piece of new writing: Georgina and the Dragon; The Very Hungry Kittens; Burglar Barry.
Information Text text written to inform. Examples include explanation, report, procedure or recount.
Inflection Inflection is a change to the ending of a word to indicate tense, number or other grammatical features. For example: walk - walks/walked/walking shoe - shoes old - older/oldest see also suffix
Infinitive The infinitive is the base form of the verb without any additional endings. For example, play is an infinitive form (as opposed to playing, played or plays). The infinitive is used with many auxiliary verbs: I will play he should play do you play? The infinitive is often used with to (to play, to eat etc): I ought to play I want to play I'm go…
Indirect Speech see direct speech
Inferential Comprehension level of understanding of a text: the reader can read meanings which are not directly explained. For example, the reader would be able to make inferences about the time of year from information given about temperature, weather, etc and from characters' behaviour and dialogue.
Imperative see sentence
Indefinite Pronouns someone, anything, nobody, everything etc Someone wants to see you about something.
Imagery use of language to create a vivid sensory image - often visual. May include: vocabulary choice of synonym, for example sprinted/ran/raced, selection of adjectives and adverbs simile he ran like the wind metaphor his feet had wings see figurative language
Idiom An idiom is an expression which is not meant literally and whose meaning cannot be deduced from knowledge of the individual words. For example: You look a bit under the weather this morning. Are you all right? Try and keep to the point of the discussion. You're always introducing red herrings. You and I have the same problems - we're in the same b…
Hyphen (-) A hyphen is sometimes used to join the two parts of a compound noun, as in golf-ball and proof-read. But it is much more usual for such compounds to be written as single words (eg football, headache, bedroom) or as separate words without a hyphen (golf ball, stomach ache, dining room, city centre). However, hyphens are used in the following cases:…
Homophone words which have the same sound as another but different meaning or different spelling: read/reed; pair/pear; right/write/rite. A homonym.
Homograph words which have the same spelling as another, but different meaning: the calf was eating/my calf was aching; the North Pole/totem pole/he is a Pole. Pronunciation may be different: a lead pencil/the dog's lead; furniture polish/Polish people. A homonym.
Homonym words which have the same spelling or pronunciation as another, but different meaning or origin. May be a homograph or homophone.
Half-Rhyme words which almost rhyme: polish/relish; pun/man.
Haiku Japanese form. The poem has three lines and 17 syllables in total in the pattern 5, 7, 5: Loving, faithful, fun Trusting and loyal and true Chocolate-brown Suki
Guided Writing a classroom activity in which pupils are grouped by writing ability. The teacher works with each group on a task carefully selected to offer an appropriate level of challenge to the group. Usefully thought of as a 'mini lesson'. Challenge may be in terms of spelling, letter formation, simple punctuation, language and vocabulary, or sophisticated a…
Guided Reading a classroom activity in which pupils are taught in groups according to reading ability. The teacher works with each group on a text carefully selected to offer an appropriate level of challenge to the group. Usefully thought of as a 'mini lesson'. Challenge may be in terms of reading cues and strategies, language and vocabulary, or sophisticated a…
Grapheme written representation of a sound; may consist of one or more letters; for example the phoneme s can be represented by the graphemes s, se, c, sc and ce as in sun, mouse, city, science.
Grammatical Boundary A grammatical boundary is the edge of a grammatical unit (a sentence, clause or phrase) which, in writing, may be indicated by a punctuation mark such as a comma, full stop, colon, semi-colon or dash.
Glossary part of a text, often an appendix, which defines terms the writer/editor considers may be unfamiliar to the intended audience.
Grammar the conventions which govern the relationships between words in any language. Includes the study of word order and changes in words: use of inflections, etc. Study of grammar is important, as it enhances both reading and writing skills; it supports effective communication.
Genre this term refers to different types of writing, each with its own specific characteristics which relate to origin (legend/folk tale) or reader interest area - the types of books individuals particularly choose to read: adventure, romance, science fiction. Texts with these specific features - often related to story elements, patterns of language, s…
Free Verse poetry which is not constrained by patterns of rhyme or rhythm.
Generic Structure the way in which elements of a text are arranged to match its purpose. This structure can be observed by readers, and writers will use this knowledge to structure their writing, depending on their purpose. See discussion text, explanation text, instruction text, narrative text, recount text, report text
Format the way in which a text is arranged or presented, for example as a book, leaflet, essay, video, audiotape. May also relate to the structure of the text, for example, the use of headings and sub-headings, diagrams/photographs with captions.
Footnote additional information which is printed at the bottom of the page rather than in the main body of the text.
Flow Chart a diagrammatic representation of either: a.      events in a story; b.      a process; or c.      an activity. A flow chart illustrates sequences of events and explores possible consequences of decisions.
Figurative Language use of metaphor or simile to create a particular impression or mood. A writer may develop an idea of a character's military approach to life by using phrases and words which are linked with the army, such as he was something of a loose cannon (metaphor); he rifled through the papers; his arm shot out; he marched into the room; he paraded his knowl…
Fiction text which is invented by a writer or speaker. Characters, settings and events are created by the originator. In some cases, one of these elements may be factual: for example, the setting may be a named city or area; the text may be based on an historical event.
Fairy Tale a story written for, or told to, children which includes elements of magic and magical folk, such as fairies, elves, goblins.
Fact accepted, observable or demonstrable truth. What is accepted as truth may change over time, in the light of new evidence. Facts must be supported by evidence; if evidence is not available, they can only be given the status of opinion. Fiction texts often make use of factual information, as in the case of historical fiction, or fiction which includ…
Fable a short story which is devised and written to convey a useful moral lesson. Animals are often used as characters, as in Aesop's Fables. See parable
Explanation Text Explanation text is written to explain how or why something happens, eg how river valleys are formed or why the Romans built roads. Typically such text consists of a description of the phenomenon and an explanatory sequence. The writer will normally need to use connectives expressing cause and effect (eg so, therefore, as a result) and time (eg la…
Exclamative see sentence
Exclamation Mark (!) An exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence (which may be exclamative, imperative or declarative) or an interjection to indicate strong emotion: What a pity! Get out! It's a goal! Oh dear! See also exclamation, sentence
Exclamation An exclamation is an utterance expressing emotion (joy, wonder, anger, surprise, etc) and is usually followed in writing by an exclamation mark (!). Exclamations can be interjections: Oh dear! Good grief! Ow! Some exclamations begin with what or how: What a beautiful day! How stupid (he is)! What a quiet little girl. Exclamations like these ar…
Evaluative Comprehension level of understanding of a text: the reader can offer an opinion on the effectiveness of the text for its purpose.
Eulogy writing or speech, the purpose of which is praise of a named person or thing. In America, this refers specifically to funeral oration.
Etymology the study of the origin and history of words.
Epitaph engraved wording on a tombstone. May be selected by the deceased or his/her family. Some will choose extracts from the Bible or from literature; others will compose their own epitaph.
Epic a poem or story relating the adventures of a heroic or legendary figure, often related to national identity, as Odysseus or Arthur.
Empathy identifying with another: a character in a story, or an historical figure; the ability to see situations from the other's point of view. Literally 'feeling with' or 'feeling in'.
Elegy a poem or song which is a lament, perhaps for someone or something which has died.
Edit to modify written work, either own or another's, in preparation for publication. This process takes place after drafting (composition), revising (major restructuring) and before proof-reading (a final check for typographical, spelling errors, etc). It involves checking of facts, minor improvements to style at sentence level, and checking for accur…
Draft preliminary written form of document; a text may develop through a number of drafts before reaching final draft stage, at which time it may be published. The process of working on a document at the composition stage is called drafting.
Double Negative In non-standard English, a double negative may be used. For example: We didn't see nobody. I never took nothing. Such double negatives are not acceptable in standard English. The equivalent standard forms would be: We didn't see anybody. I didn't take anything.
Discussion Text a text (written or spoken) which presents all sides of an issue. A discussion text typically begins by outlining the issues before making points for and against. These points are backed up with evidence. It often concludes by stating an opinion in favour of one particular side, or by asking the reader/listener to decide. An example of a discussion…
Discrimination Discrimination is the ability to perceive the difference between two things, for example phonemes. Some pairs of sounds are more difficult for children to discriminate between, for example k/g, t/d, and p/b.
Direct Speech And Indirect Speech There are two ways of reporting what somebody says, direct speech and indirect speech. In direct speech, we use the speaker's original words (as in a speech bubble). In text, speech marks ('…' or '…' — also called inverted commas or quotes) mark the beginning and end of direct speech: Helen said, 'I'm going home'.  'What do you want?' I asked. In…
Digraph two letters representing one phoneme: bath; train; ch/ur/ch.
Diminutive a term which implies smallness. This may reflect actual physical lack of stature; alternatively, it may be used as a term of endearment. The word may be a recognised word, eg Tiny Tim, Little Dorrit, or may be created by the addition of a suffix to a name or noun: lambkin, starlet, kitchenette.
Dialogue a conversation between two parties. May be spoken or written.
Dialect A dialect is a variety of a language used in a particular area and which is distinguished by certain features of grammar or vocabulary. Examples of such features in some English dialects are: non-standard subject + verb patterns, eg I knows, you was, he like past tense forms, eg I done, I seen various individual words and expressions, eg owt/nowt …
Determiner Determiners include many of the most frequent English words, eg the, a, my, this. Determiners are used with nouns (this book, my best friend, a new car) and they limit (ie determine) the reference of the noun in some way. Determiners include: articles a/an, the demonstratives this/that, these/those possessives my/your/his/her/its/our/their quant…
Derivation tracing the origin of a word or saying.
Descender In written or typed script, many letters have the same height: a, c, e, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, x, z. Some letters have parts which extend below this: g, j, p, q, y. These parts are called descenders. In some fonts, f and z have descenders.
Declarative see sentence.
Decode literally, this means to convert a message written/spoken in code into language which is easily understood. In reading, this refers to children's ability to read words - to translate the visual code of the letters into a word.
Dash (â€`) A dash is a punctuation mark used especially in informal writing (such as letters to friends, postcards or notes). Dashes may be used to replace other punctuation marks (colons, semi-colons, commas) or brackets: It was a great day out â€` everybody enjoyed it.
Cue a source of information. In reading, children may use contextual, grammatical, graphic and phonological cues to work out unfamiliar words. Fluent readers orchestrate different cues and cross-check.
Couplet two consecutive lines of poetry which are paired in length or rhyme.
Correspondence matching of two separate types of information: for example, letters or letter strings with the phonemes they represent; matching one written with one spoken word.
Contraction see apostrophe
Consonant A consonant is a speech sound which obstructs the flow of air through the vocal tract; for example, the flow of air is obstructed by the lips in p and by the tongue in l. The term also refers to those letters of the alphabet whose typical value is to represent such sounds, namely all except a,e,i,o,u. The letter y can represent a consonant sound (…
Connective A connective is a word or phrase that links clauses or sentences. Connectives can be conjunctions (eg but, when, because) or connecting adverbs (eg however, then, therefore). Connecting adverbs (and adverbial phrases and clauses) maintain the cohesion of a text in several basic ways, including:  addition also, furthermore, moreover opposition how…
Conjunction A word used to link clauses within a sentence. For example, in the following sentences, but and if are conjunctions: It was raining but it wasn't cold. We won't go out if the weather's bad. There are two kinds of conjunction: a. Co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, or and so). These join (and are placed between) two clauses of equal weight. Do yo…
Conditional A conditional sentence is one in which one thing depends upon another. Conditional sentences often contain the conjunction if: I'll help you if I can. If the weather's bad, we might not go out. Other conjunctions used in conditionals are unless, providing, provided and as long as. A conditional sentence can refer to an imaginary situation. For exa…
Concrete Poem a poem in which the layout of the words represents an aspect of the subject. In some cases, these poems are presented as sculptures. Concrete poems blur the distinction between visual and linguistic art, as do other shape poems.
Compound Word a word made up of two other words: football, headrest, broomstick.
Comprehension the level of understanding of a text.
Complement In the sentences Lisa is a fast runner or Lisa is very fit, 'Lisa' is the subject and 'is' is the verb. Neither sentence has an object. The rest of the sentence (a fast runner/very fit) is called a complement. A complement usually tells you something about the subject of the sentence (especially after the verb be but also after other linking verbs…
Commentary a set of notes which explain, or give further detail or information on a text. For example, a commentary may explain imagery in a poem or section of prose; alternatively, it may draw viewers' attention to particular aspects of a piece of film. The purpose of a commentary is to deepen comprehension.
Commas Commas are often used to mark off connecting adverbs or adverbial phrases or clauses: First of all, I want to say … I didn't think much of the film. Helen, on the other hand, enjoyed it. Connecting adverbs and conjunctions function differently. Conjunctions (like but and although) join clauses within a sentence. Connecting adverbs (like however) c…
Comma (,) A comma is a punctuation mark used to help the reader by separating parts of a sentence. It sometimes corresponds to a pause in speech. In particular we use commas: to separate items in a list (but not usually before and): My favourite sports are football, tennis, swimming and gymnastics. I got home, had a bath and went to bed. to mark off extra i…
Colloquial belonging to conversation/language used in familiar, informal contexts. Contrasted with formal or literary language.
Coherence And Cohesion An effective text needs to be coherent and cohesive. The term coherence refers to the underlying logic and consistency of a text. The ideas expressed should be relevant to one another so that the reader can follow the meaning. The term cohesion refers to the grammatical features in a text which enable the parts to fit together. One way of creating…
Cloze an exercise in which certain words are deleted from a text and a gap left. The learner's task is to supply the missing words. The teacher chooses which words to omit, depending on the learning task. Words can be deleted in a specific way, eg adjectives, conjunctions, or randomly (every nth word). Cloze procedure can be used to measure readability.…
Cliché an over-used phrase or opinion: sick as a parrot; her eyes shone like stars; too many cooks spoil the broth. May be idiomatic.
Clerihew a four line comic verse with two rhyming couplets. Lines may be of any length. The first line is the name of the person about whom the rhyme is written: Jeremiah Smith Is boring to be with The company he doth keep Will send a person to sleep Named after its inventor E. Clerihew Bentley who died in 1956.
Clause A clause is a group of words that expresses an event (she drank some water) or a situation (she was thirsty/she wanted a drink). It usually contains a subject (she in the examples) and verb (drank/was/wanted). Note how a clause differs from a phrase:  a big dog (a phrase - this refers to 'a big dog' but doesn't say what the dog did or what happen…
Cinquain a poem with a standard syllable pattern, like a haiku, invented by Adelaide Crapsey, an American poet. Five lines and a total of 22 syllables in the sequence: 2, 4, 6, 8, 2.
Character an individual in a story, play or poem whose personality can be inferred from their actions and dialogue. Writers may also use physical description of the individual to give readers clues about a character. chronological writing writing organised in terms of sequences of events.
Calligram a poem in which the calligraphy, the formation of the letters or the font selected, represents an aspect of the poem's subject, as in: thin, ancient, growth. A poem about fear might be written in shaky letters to represent trembling.
Blurb information about a book, designed to attract readers, usually printed on the back or inside flap of book jacket. Informs the prospective reader about genre, setting, etc
Blank Verse poetry written with rhythm and metre, but without rhyme. Especially linked with iambic pentameter (ten syllable line with unstressed/stressed syllable pattern) as in the work of Shakespeare.
Blend the process of combining phonemes into larger elements such as clusters, syllables and words. Also refers to a combination of two or more phonemes, particularly at the beginning and end of words, st, str, nt, pl, nd.
