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Aehrenthal, Count Aloys von (1854-1912) Austro-Hungarian diplomat and politician. He was foreign minister during the Aelana Ancient name for Aqaba, Jordan's only port, on the Gulf of Aqaba. ... Aelfric (c. 955-1020) English writer and abbot. Between 990 and 998 he wrote in vernacular Old English prose two sets of sermons known as Catholic Homilies, and a further set known as Lives of the Saints, all of them... Aeneas In classical mythology, a Trojan prince who became the ancestral hero of the Romans. According to Latin narrative poem or epic by Aeolian People of ancient Greece, who established 12 cities along the coast of northwestern Asia Minor. Near the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Aeolians, deriving from Thessaly and Boeotia, planted their... Aeolus In Greek mythology, the ruler or keeper of the winds. He kept them imprisoned in a cave on the island of Aeolia, which came to be identified with Lipari, one of the Aeolian islands that lie north of... aeon Age or immense period of time. The Gnostics used the term to indicate manifestations from God, or spirits which form a separate existence and have influence over phases in the world's progression. ... Aequi Italian people, originating around the River Velino, central Italy. They were turned back from their advance on Rome 431 BC and were conquered 304 BC, at the end of the second Samnite War. ... aerial bombardment Another name for aerial photography Taking photographs from a high level (using an aircraft or satellite). Aerial photography enables surface features to be detected, and is used by geologists, surveyors, engineers, and... aerial reconnaissance Technique used primarily for the recording and interpretation of archaeological sites from the air, though at times it can also be useful in discovering new sites. In warfare, aerial reconna ... Aertzen (or Aartsen), Pieter (c. 1509-1575) Dutch painter. He excelled in interiors and homely scenes, though also producing historical and religious works. His Maidservant (Musée Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels) is an original and early... Aeschines (389-314 BC) Athenian orator and principal rival of Aeschylus (c. 525-c. 456 BC) Athenian dramatist. He developed Greek tragedy by introducing the second actor, thus enabling true dialogue and dramatic action to occur independently of the chorus. Ranked with Aesculapius In Roman mythology, the god of medicine, equivalent to the Greek Aesir The principal gods of Norse mythology - Odin, Thor, Balder, Tyr, Heimdall, and Loki. Their dwelling place was Aesop By tradition, a writer of Greek fables. According to the historian Herodotus, he lived in the mid-6th century BC and was a slave. The fables that are ascribed to him were collected at a later date... Aesthetic Movement English artistic movement of the late 19th century, dedicated to the doctrine of `art for art's sake`- that is, art as a self-sufficient entity concerned solely with beauty and not with any... aesthetics Branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty, especially in art. It emerged as a distinct branch of enquiry in the mid-18th century. Aesthetics attempts... Aetolia District of ancient Greece on the northwest of the gulf of Corinth. The Aetolian League was a confederation of the cities of Aetolia formed in 370 BC and which, following the death of Alexander the... AEW Abbreviation for Airborne Early Warning, a military surveillance system; see affidavit Legal document, used in court applications and proceedings, in which a person swears that certain facts are true. In England, an affidavit is usually sw ... affiliation order In English law, formerly a court order for maintenance against the alleged father of an illegitimate child. Under the Family Law Reform Act 1987, either parent can apply for a court order for... affinity In law, relationship by marriage not blood (for example, between a husband and his wife's blood relatives, between a wife and her husband's blood relatives, or between step-parent and stepchild),... affirmation Solemn declaration made instead of taking the oath by a person who has no religious belief or objects to taking an oath on religious grounds. The privilege of affirming was first granted to the... affirmative action, USA Policy of positive discrimination pursued in the USA for the advancement of disadvantaged US citizens. First promoted by US president Lyndon Johnson's Executive Order 11246 (1965), it was furthered... affirmative action Policy of positive discrimination to increase opportunities for certain social groups in employment, business, government, and other areas. The policy is designed to counter the effects of... affluent society Society in which most people have money left over after satisfying their basic needs such as food and shelter. They are then able to decide how to spend their excess (`disposable`) income, and... Affre, Denis Auguste (1793-1848) French cleric, Roman Catholic archbishop of Paris 1840-48, clerical reformer and defender of academic freedom. He tried to mediate between the soldiers and insurgents during the People who are natives to or inhabitants of Afghanistan. The dominant group, particularly in Kabul, are the Pathans. The Tajiks, a smaller ethnic group, are predominantly traders and farmers in the... Afghan Wars Three wars waged between Britain and Afghanistan to counter the threat to British India from expanding Russian influence in Afghanistan. First Afghan War (1838-42): the British invaded Afghanistan... Afghanistan Mountainous, landlocked country in south-central Asia, bounded north by Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, west by Iran, and south and east by Pakistan, India, and China. Government Under... Afghanistan War US-led military action against Afghanistan beginning 7 October 2001. This first strike in the Abbreviation for Afonso I (1094-1185) King of Portugal from 1112. He made Portugal independent from León. ... Afonso II (1185-1223) King of Portugal 1211-23. He is noted chiefly for his endeavours to weaken the power of the clergy, in the course of which he was excommunicated, and for his code of law. ... Afonso III (1210-1279) King of Portugal 1248-79. His reign witnessed a notable increase in the effectiveness of royal administration, and was marked by frequent clashes with the church. ... Afonso IV (1291-1357) King of Portugal 1325-57. Wars with Castile and the Moors occupied most of his reign. Civil war broke out between him and his son, Pedro, as a result of the mur ... Afonso V (1432-1481) King of Portugal 1438-81. His father died in 1438 and, after a turbulent regency under his uncle Pedro, Afonso assumed the government in 1448. He conducted a successful campaign in Morocco against... Afonso VI (1643-1683) King of Portugal 1656-67, son of John IV. He was forced, on account of his alleged impotence, to abdicate 1667. He retired to Terceira where he died. ... Africa, the scramble for Drive by European nations to establish colonies in Africa. It began in the 1880s, and by 1914 only two African countries remained completely independent. They were Ethiopia, which had been a kingdom... African People who are native to or inhabitants of the continent of Africa, especially of sub-Saharan Africa. The region is culturally heterogeneous with numerous distinctive ethnic and sociolinguistic... African art Art of black African origin, in particular the sculpture and carving of the sub-Saharan domain, from prehistory to the art of ancient civilizations and post-imperialist Africa. Covering a vast... African Development Bank Organization founded 1963 to promote and finance economic development across the African continent. Its members include 51 African and 25 non-African countries. Its headquarters are in Abidja'n,... African history Africa is probably the continent in which humans originated (see African literature African literature was mainly oral until the 20th century and oral traditions of proverbs, mythological narratives, and poetry persist and influence contemporary writing. There exists a wide variety... African nationalism Political movement for the unification of Africa ( African National Congress South African political party, founded in 1912 as a multiracial nationalist organization with the aim of extending the franchise to the whole population and ending all racial discrimination. Its... African Union Association established in 1963 as the Organization of African Unity (OAU) to eradicate colonialism and improve economic, cultural, and political cooperation in Africa. Its headquarters are in Addis... Afrifa, Okatakyie Akwasi Amankwa (1936-1979) Ghanaian army officer, former head of state (from April to September 1969), and a principal leader of the coup of 1966 that overthrew Kwame Afrika Korps German army in the western desert of North Africa 1941-43 during World War II, commanded by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. They were driven out of North Africa by May 1943. The Korps was formed as... Afrikaner Inhabitant of Afro-Caribbean West Indian people of African descent. Afro-Caribbeans are the descendants of West Africans captured or obtained in trade from African procurers. European slave traders then shipped them to the... afterlife Belief that life does not end with death but continues in some other form or in some other place, granting some form of Afwerki, Issaias (1945) Eritrean soldier and politician, president 1993-â€Æ`. He was appointed head of Eritrea's provisional government in 1991, after Ethiopian president aga Title of nobility, applied by the Turks to military commanders and, in general, to men of high station in some Muslim countries. It is possibly of Aga Khan III (1877-1957) Spiritual head (imam) of the Ismaili Muslim sect (see Aga Khan IV, (Karim) (1936) Spiritual head (imam) of the `Ismaili` Muslim sect (see Agadir Incident International crisis provoked by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, July-November 1911. By sending the gunboat Panther to demand territorial concessions from... Agamemnon In Greek mythology, a Greek hero of the Trojan wars, son of Agasias (lived 1st century BC) Two Greek sculptors of Ephesus. (1) Son of Dositheus. He signed the Borghese Warrior, now in the Louvre, a sculpture of two warriors in combat, one on foot and one on horseback; it was discovered at... Agate, James (Evershed) (1877-1947) English essayist and theatre critic. His reviews, many of which were published, were noted for their wit, clarity, and seriousness. He wrote Ego, a diary in nine volumes published 1935-49. Born in... Agatha, St (lived 3rd century AD) Patron saint of Catania, Sicily. According to legend she was a member of the Sicilian nobility who refused the attentions of the Roman prefect. She was sentenced to be burnt alive, but when the... Agee, James (Rufus) (1909-1955) US journalist, screenwriter, and author. He rose to national prominence as a result of his investigation of the plight of sharecroppers in the South during the Depression. In collaboration with the... ageism Prejudice against people because of their age. Ageism often takes the form of discrimination against older job applicants. In contrast to discrimination on the basis of gender, race, or disability,... Agent Orange Selective weedkiller, notorious for its use by US forces during the Vietnam War to eliminate ground cover that could protect enemy forces. It was subsequently discovered to... aggregate demand The total demand for goods and services in the economy. When aggregate demand or spending falls over a period of one to two years, the economy tends to go into recession, while a rise in aggregate... aggression In politics, an unprovoked attack often involving an escalating series of threats aimed at intimidating an opponent. The actions of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler in the 1930s, leading to World War... Agheila, El Small Libyan town on the south coast of the Gulf of Sidra, south of Benghazi. A thin strip of firm ground between the sea and extensive salt marshes, it forms a natural bottleneck and so during the... Agincourt, Battle of Battle fought on 25 October 1415 at Agincourt during the Hundred Years' War, between Henry V of England and a much larger force of French under a divided command. Henry completely defeated the... agitprop Soviet government bureau established in September 1920 in charge of communist agitation and propaganda. The idea was later developed by left-wing groups in the West for the use of theatre and... Aglaia One of the three AGM Abbreviation for Agnes, St Christian martyr in the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian. According to legend, at the age of 12 she was publicly humiliated and martyred in Rome for refusing the praetor's heathen son. Her... Agnew, Spiro (Theodore) (1918-1996) US vice-president 1969-73, a Republican. He was governor of Maryland 1966-69, and vice-president under Richard Agni In Hindu mythology, the god of fire, the guardian of homes, and the protector of humans against evil. ... Agnon, Shmuel Yosef (1888-1970) Israeli novelist. Born in Buczacz, Galicia (now part of western Ukraine), he made it the setting of his most celebrated work, Tmol Shilshom/A Guest for... agnosticism Belief that the existence of God cannot be proven; that in the nature of things the individual cannot know anything of what lies behind or beyond the world of natural phenomena. The term was co ... agora In an ancient Greek town, the public meeting place and market, equivalent to the Roman Agostino di Duccio (1418-1481) Italian sculptor. He is best known for his marble low reliefs. Among his most important works are sculptures for the facade of the oratory of San Bernardino in Perugia, central Italy. Agostino was... Agostino Veneziano (c. 1490-c. 1536) Venetian engraver. He was active mainly in Rome, and by engraving paintings by well-known artists helped disseminate Italian Renaissance themes and motifs throughout Europe. Originally active in... agrarian revolution Until the 1960s historians believed that there had been an 18th-century revolution in agriculture, similar to the revolution that occurred in industry. They claimed that there had been sweeping... Agricola, Gnaeus Julius (40-93) Roman general and politician. Born at Forum Julii (Fréjus) in Provence, he became consul in 77, and then governor of Britain 78-85. He extended Roman rule to the Firth of Forth in Scotland and in... agricultural revolution See agriculture, 19th-century British After a period of depression following the Napoleonic Wars, agriculture developed rapidly during the 19th century. The landed interests countered the post-war slump in agriculture with protective... Agriculture, Department of US government department of the executive branch established in 1861 to regulate and promote agriculture. It now operates numerous programmes in research, planning, natural resources and... Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food, Ministry of Former UK government department, incorporated in June 2001 into the new Department for agriculture, medieval In the Middle Ages, the Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius (1486-1535) German theologian, doctor, soldier, and cabbalist. During his varied career he worked for several European rulers, notably for Emperor Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius (c. 63-12 BC) Roman general and admiral. He was instrumental in the successful campaigns and rise to power of the emperor Agrippina, the Younger (AD 15-59) Influential member of a Roman imperial family, sister of Caligula, mother of Nero, and wife of her uncle Claudius, all Roman emperors. She was suspected of poisoning Claudius, having previously... Aguinaldo, Emilio (1869-1964) Filipino revolutionary leader. He became a militant nationalist on Luzon island during the 1890s and led a year-long insurrection against the Philippines' Spanish colonial rulers in 1896, which... Aguiyi-Ironsi, Johnson (1925-1966) Nigerian politician and soldier, head of state in 1966. He commanded the Nigerian contingent during the UN involvement in the Congo from 1960, and was appointed commander-in-chief in 1965. He... AH In the Muslim calendar, abbreviation for Ahab (c. 875-854 BC) King of Israel. His empire included the suzerainty of Moab, and Judah was his subordinate ally, but his kingdom was weakened by constant wars with Syria. By his marriage with Jezebel, Princess of... Ahasuerus Name of several Persian kings in the Bible, notably the husband of Ahern, Bertie Patrick Bartholemew (1951) Irish politician, Taoiseach (prime minister) from 1997, leader of Fianna Fáil from 1994. After the May 1997 election he formed a minority coalition government with the Progressive Democrats as... Aherne, Caroline (1963) English comedian, writer, and actor. She co-wrote and acted in both The Mrs Merton Show (1995), a chat show in which she plays a pensioner who excels in insulting her guests, and the resulting... Ahidjo, Ahmadou (1924-1989) Cameroonian politician, president 1960-82. He became president following the amalgamation of most of the British Cameroons with the French Cameroons in 1960, and was re-elected to that post in... ahimsa In Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the doctrine of respect for all life (including the lowest forms and even the elements themselves) and consequently an extreme form of nonviolence. It arises in... Ahlberg, Allan (1938) English writer of numerous children's books, many of which were illustrated by his wife, Janet, who died in 1994. Having trained as a teacher, Ahlberg's work takes advantage of his knowledge of... Ahmad Shah Durrani (1724-1773) Founder and first ruler of Afghanistan. Elected shah in 1745, he had conquered the Punjab by 1751 and defeated the Ahmadiyya Islamic religious movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908). His followers reject the doctrine that Muhammad was the last of the prophets and accept Ahmad's claim to be the Mahdi and... Ahmed, Nazir (1955) Pakistani-born British Labour working peer, created in 1998, one of three Muslim members of the House of Lords. Elected to Rotherham Council in 1990, he was the founder of the British Muslim... Ahoms People who first named the province of Assam, northeast India, ruling from the 13th century until the Burmese invaded at the end of the 18th century. ... Ahriman In Zoroastrianism, the supreme evil spirit, lord of the darkness and death, waging war with his counterpart Ahura Mazda (Ormuzd) until a time when human beings choose to lead good lives and Ahriman... Ahtisaari, Maarti (1939) Finnish diplomat and politician, president 1994-2000. Prior to being chosen as the Social Democratic Party presidential candidate, he was undersecretary general of the Un ... Ahura Mazda In Zoroastrianism, the spirit of supreme good. As god of life and light he will finally prevail over his enemy, Ahriman. ... Aichi Japanese aircraft of World War II, principally used by the navy. The B7A, known to the Allies as `Grace`, was a torpedo-bomber produced in small numbers. The D3A, known as `Val`, was a... aid Financial or other assistance given or lent, on favourable terms, by richer, usually industrialized, countries to war-damaged or developing states. It may be given for political, commercial, or... Aidan, St (c. 600-651) Irish monk who converted Northumbria to Christianity and founded Lindisfarne monastery on Holy Island off the northeast coast of England. His feast day is 31 August. ... aide-de-camp Officer who acts as private secretary to a general, commander in chief, or air marshal, and would normally accompany them on any duty. Aides-de-camp are principally concerned with the... Aidid, Muhammad Farah (1936-1996) Somali soldier and politician. A one-time colleague of the Somali president Siad Barre, in 1990 he established an anti-Barre paramilitary organization, the United Somali Congress (USC), which... Aidit, D N (1923-1965) Indonesian politician, leader of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) 1951-65. Under Aidit's leadership the PKI became one of the largest political parties in Indonesia. With an estimated 20... Aidoo, Ama Ata (1940) Ghanaian dramatist and writer. She writes in English about the challenges of modern women in traditional African cultures. Dilemma of a Ghost (1965), her best-known play, deals with the... Aigun, Treaty of Treaty between Russia and China signed in 1858 at the port of Aigun in China on the Amur River. The left bank was ceded to Russia, but this has since been repudiated by China. ... Aiken, Conrad Potter (1889-1973) US poet, novelist, and short-story writer. His Selected Poems (1929) won a Pulitzer Prize. His works were influenced by early psychoanalytic theory and the use of the stream-of-consciousness... Aiken, Joan (Delano) (1924) English novelist and writer of critically acclaimed historical and mystery books for children including The Wolves of Willoughby Chase (1962) and The Jewel Seed (1997). Her first publication was a... Ailly, Pierre d' (1350-1420) French geographer and theologian. As a cardinal he became involved in the Ailred, St (or St Aelred or St Ethelred) (1109-1167) British religious mystic and historian, an influential advisor to Henry II of England, Louis VII of France, and David I of Scotland. His works include `Vita et Miracula S. Edwardi Regis et... Ainsworth, William Harrison (1805-1882) English historical novelist. He wrote more than 40 novels and helped popularize the legends of Dick Ainu Aboriginal people of Japan, driven north in the 4th century AD by ancestors of the Japanese. They now number about 25,000, inhabiting Japanese and Russian territory on Sakhalin, Hokkaido, and the... air force A nation's fleet of fighting aircraft and the organization that maintains them. History The emergence of the aeroplane at first brought only limited recognition of its potential value as a means of... air raid Aerial attack, usually on a civilian target such as a factory, railway line, or communications centre (see also airbrush Small fine spray-gun used by artists, graphic designers, and photographic retouchers. Driven by air pressure from a compressor or pressurized can, it can apply a thin, very even layer of ink or... aircraft carrier Ocean-going naval vessel with a broad, flat-topped deck for launching and landing military aircraft; a floating military base for warplanes too far from home for refuelling, repairing,... Airy, Anna (1882-1964) English artist, etcher, and writer. London's riverside criminal haunts were the main source of her inspiration, recurrent themes being cockfighting, gambling, and boxing. Her paintings of munitions... aisle In church architecture, usually the areas running parallel to the nave, lying between it and the outer walls. In larger churches, the choir and transepts may be aisled; double aisles running between... Aisne, Battles of Three battles between Allied and German forces in northern France during World War I. The first battle in September 1914 was inconclusive and left both sides entrenched along lines they held for... Ait Ahmed, Hocine (1926) Algerian nationalist and politician. He was a member of the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) and the Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne (CNRA) during the liberation war. Arrested in... Aitken, Jonathan (William Patrick) (1942) British Conservative politician who was at the centre of a number of political scandals and in June 1999 became the only former member of Parliament in the 20th century to be jailed, for perjury and... Aitmatov, Chingiz (1928) Kirghiz novelist. His work, drawing on oral epic tradition (the Kirghiz language had no alphabet until 1928), dramatizes the conflict between the tribal customs of the Kirghiz nomads and the Western... Ajanta Village in Maharashtra state, India, known for its Buddhist cave temples dating from 200 BC to the 7th century AD. The Ajanta Caves boast some 28 chambers cut from solid granite, which are covered... Ajax Greek hero in Homer's Iliad. Son of Telamon, King of Salamis, he was second only to Achilles among the Greek heroes in the Trojan War. He fought Akaka, Daniel Kahikina (1924) US Democratic politician, senator for Hawaii from 1990. He was elected to the US House of Representatives, as a Democrat for Hawaii, in 1976 and became senator for Hawaii in 1990. He was the first... Akal Takht Site of Sikh Akayev, Askar (1944) Kyrgyz politician, president from 1990. A reform-communist politician, he joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1981 and became executive president in Kyrgyzstan in November... Akbar-nama Book of miniatures (Victoria and Albert Museum, London) painted by Akbar, Jalal ud-Din Muhammad (1542-1605) Third Mogul emperor of North India from 1556, when he succeeded his father Humayun. He gradually established his rule throughout North India. He is considered... Akhand Path In Sikh worship, the continuous reading of the Akhenaton (or Ikhnaton) King (pharaoh) of ancient Egypt of the 18th dynasty (c. 1353-1335 BC), who may have ruled jointly for a time with his father Amenhotep III. He developed the cult of the Sun, Akhetaton Capital of ancient Egypt established by the monotheistic pharaoh akhirah In Islam, life after death. Muslims believe that people need to follow God's teachings of respect, honesty, and kindness to others, and after death they will be judged by their actions. God will... Akhmatova, Anna (1889-1966) Russian poet. She was a leading member of the Akihito (1933) Emperor of Japan from 1989, succeeding his father Hirohito (Showa). His reign is called the Heisei (`achievement of universal peace`) era. Unlike previous crown princes, Akihito was educated... Akimel O'odham Alternative name for a member of the American Indian Akins, Zoe (1886-1958) US writer. She wrote poems, literary criticism, and plays, including The Greeks Had a Word for It (1930). She was born in Missouri. ... Akintola, Samuel Ladoke (1910-1966) Nigerian political leader and journalist. He obtained a degree in law from a UK university, returning to Nigeria in 1949 to become a major political figure of the Yoruba ethnic group. In 1955 he... Akkad Northern Semitic people who conquered the Sumerians 2350 BC and ruled Mesopotamia. Their language was Semitic (old Akkadian). Akkad... Akkaia Alternative form of Akko Seaport in northwest Israel, situated on the Mediterranean Sea; population (1995 est) 48,300. The city was built on a small promontory which, with Mount Carmel to the south, forms a semicircular... Akongo Primordial god of the Ngombe people in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), essence of the spirit in all humanity. ... Aksakov, Sergei Timofeyevich (1791-1859) Russian writer. Born at Ufa, he became a civil servant, and under the influence of Nicolai Gogol, he wrote autobiographical novels, including Chronicles of a Russian Family (1856) and Years of... Aksum Ancient Greek-influenced Semitic kingdom that flourished in the 1st-6th centuries AD and covered a large part of modern Ethiopia as well as the Sudan. The ruins of its capital, also called... Akutagawa, Ry?nosuke (1892-1927) Japanese writer of stories, plays, and poetry. Noted for stylistic virtuosity, he wrote autobiographical fiction and grim satirical fables such as `Kappa` (1927), but his best works are stories... Akyab Island Island off the northwest coast of Burma (now Myanmar); in World War II the Japanese built several airfields there, making it a valuable strategic target. The Allies planned an assault landing for 3... Al Legendary Armenian demon, appearing as half-animal and half-human, shaggy and bristly, often holding a pair of scissors. Als chiefly attack a mother in childbirth, strangling both her and her... Al Kut City and river port in eastern Iraq, 164 km/103 mi southeast of Baghdad, on the River Tigris; population (2001 est) 352,800. It is a grain market for the surrounding agricultural area and a... Al Mad?nah Arabic name for al-Amin, Jamil Abdullah (1943) US political activist and author. As chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), he emerged with Stokely Al-Bakr, Ahmed Hassan (1914-1982) Iraqi soldier and politician, prime minister of Iraq in 1963 and 1964, and prime minister and president 1968-79. A member of the socialist al-Farab?, Ab? Nasr (c. 870-950) Arab philosopher of Turkish origin. He is best known as having introduced Aristotle to the Islamic world. A diligent commentator on Aristotle's works from the neo-Platonist standpoint, he applied... al-Hakam I (770-822) Emir of Córdoba 796-822. He drove the Franks beyond the Pyrenees. Al-Hakam was confronted with severe internal dissidence among the Arab nobility. A rebellion in Toledo was put down savagely,... al-Hakam II (died 976) Caliph of Córdoba 961-76. He won many victories against the Christians and extended the influence of Islam. Son of Abd ar-Rahman III (also known as an-Nasir), al-Hakam adopted the... al-Kind? (lived 9th century) Arab philosopher. He was the first of the so-called Arabian school, and introduced into the Islamic world a system which combined Aristotelianism and neo-Platonism. His outlook was fundamentally... al-Mamun (786-833) Ottoman ruler. He was the seventh caliph of the Abbasside Dynasty, from 813. He had defeated his brother, al-Amin, to gain the throne. Al-Mamun encouraged science and the arts. He died during a... al-Mansur (712-775) Ottoman ruler. He was the second caliph of the Abbasside Dynasty, from 754, succeeding his brother al-Saffah. Al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad (763) and made it his capital. He stabilized... al-Maqrizi (1364-1442) Arab historian and geographer. His most important work is a description of Egypt, including the natural features of the land and the customs and beliefs of its inhabitants. He also described the... al-Qaeda Islamic-extremist international terrorist organization, nominally controlled by Osama al-Rayhânî, Amîn (1876-1940) Lebanese-born poet. Amîn moved to New York City with his family in 1888. His works include He wrote `Myrtle and Myrrh` (1905) and `The Book of Khalid` (1911). He was often referred to as... Alabama Confederate cruiser (1,040 tons) in the alabaster Naturally occurring fine-grained white or light-coloured translucent form of gypsum, often streaked or mottled. A soft material, it is easily carved, but seldom used for outdoor sculpture. ... Aladdin In the ALADI Abbreviation for Asociacion Latino-Americana de Integration/ Alain (1868-1951) French philosopher. He was an influential exponent of the ideas of French radicalism, through his books and, from 1906, his daily newspaper column in which he extolled the role of individual... Alain-Fournier (1886-1914) French novelist. His haunting semi-autobiographical fantasy Le Grand Meaulnes/The Lost Domain (1913) was a cult novel of the 1920s and 1930s. His life is intimately recorded in his correspondence... Alam Halfa, Battle of In World War II, unsuccessful German attack led by Field Marshal Rommel on the southern sector of the British defensive Alamein line in North Africa 30 August 1942. The British general Alamanni Alternative spelling of Alamanni, Luigi (1495-1556) Italian poet and humanist. He spent much of his life as an exile at the French court and so played an important role in introducing the literature and thought of the Italian Renaissance to... Alamein, El, battles of Two decisive battles of World War II in the western desert of northern Egypt. In the first (1-22 July 1942), the British 8th Army under Alamo, the Mission fortress in San Antonio, Texas, USA. During the War of Texan Independence from Mexico, it was besieged 23 February-6 March 1836 by Alanbrooke, Alan Francis Brooke (1883-1963) British army officer. He was Chief of Staff in World War II and largely responsible for the strategy that led to the German defeat. Born at Bagnères-de-Bigorre, France, Alanbrooke served in the... Alani A nomadic pastoral people in the ancient world, speaking an Iranian language and occupying steppe land to the northeast of the Black Sea. The Alani migrated into the eastern provinces of the Roman... Alarcón, Juan Ruiz de (c. 1581-1639) Mexican-born Spanish dramatist. His work includes heroic drama and comedies of intrigue, his masterpiece being La Verdad sospechosa/The Suspicious Truth (imitated by French dramatist Corneille in... Alarcón, Pedro Antonio de (1833-1891) Spanish journalist and writer. The acclaimed Diario/Diary (1859) was based upon his experiences as a soldier in Morocco. His novel El sombrero de tres picos/The Three-Cornered Hat (1874;... Alaric (c. 370-410) Visigothic king 395-410 who campaigned against the Romans in the Balkans and Italy. On 24 August 410 he captured and sacked Rome. After three days he led the Goths south, intending to invade... Alas, Leopoldo (1852-1901) Spanish novelist and literary critic. His masterpiece, published under the pseudonym of Clatin, is La Regenta (1884), the tragic study of a sensitive woman in a dull... alb In the Christian church, a liturgical vestment consisting of a white linen tunic with narrow sleeves and a hole for the head. Ultimately derived from the tunica alba of Roman citizens, it symbolizes... Alban, St (lived 3rd century) First Christian martyr in England. In 793 King Offa founded a monastery on the site of Alban's martyrdom, around which the city of St Albans grew up. His feast day is 20 June. According to... Albani, Francesco (1578-1660) Italian painter of religious and mythological subjects. He first studied in the school of the Flemish painter Denis Calvaert in Bologna, and then with the Albania Country in southeastern Europe, bounded north by Serbia and Montenegro, east by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, south by Greece, and west and southwest by the Adriatic Sea. Government... Albanian People of Albanian culture from Albania and the surrounding area. The Albanian language belongs to a separate group within the Indo-European family and has an estimated 3-4 million speakers.... Albany, Alexander Stewart, 3rd Duke of (c. 1454-1485) Son of James II of Scotland, he usurped the throne of Scotland with English help. He was arrested by his brother, King James III, in 1479 but escaped to England and was recognized as king of... Albany, John Stewart, 4th Duke of (1484-1536) Son of Alexander, 3rd Duke of Albany, he was made regent for the infant king James V in 1514 acting as an agent for the French king Francis I. He fled to France in 1517 where he was detained for a... Albany, Robert Stewart, 1st Duke of (c. 1340-1420) Scottish noble and governor of Scotland 1402-20. His brother, Robert III of Scotland, was an invalid and so deemed unable to rule. Albany vied with Robert's elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay, for... Albatros German fighter aircraft of World War I. The Albatros DIII, a highly streamlined biplane capable of speeds of 175 kph/110 mph armed with two machine guns, was one of the most significant fighter... Albee, Edward (Franklin) (1928) US dramatist. Associated with the Theatre of the Alberdi, Juan Bautista (1810-1884) Argentine political theorist and diplomat. Forced into exile 1838 because of his opposition to dictator Juan Manuel de Alberoni, Giulio (1664-1752) Spanish-Italian priest and politician, born in Piacenza, Italy. Philip V made him prime minister of Spain 1715. In 1717 he became a cardinal. He introduced many domestic reforms, including the... | SearchTyp a word and hit `Search`.
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